Appendix D - Narrative Techniques & Rock 'n' Roll
When you go on a trip, you start excited, but after a while, the landscape loses its attraction and boredom takes its place. Reading a book (or telling a story) faces the same danger. Every writer does hor best on the plot, the characters and the setting, but you also surprise your reader with a gold coin on the road, and then another one, which turns the 10-hour voyage from Opening Image to Closing Image into an amazing adventure.
Stylistic devices are gold coins to surprise your reader, brief moments of attention. Narrative techniques are long-term devices to keep the trip interesting. Both work like spices: the soup tastes better when you add a pinch of salt, but don't turn it into the Dead Sea.
Some novel writers change Point of View with every new chapter; this confuses readers and avoids that they identify with just one Main Character. Write in past tense or in present tense and don't alternate. Keep flashbacks brief, as they drag the reader away from the main story. Don't hop around between past and present; a solid time-line makes the story easier to understand. Read lots and lots of fiction, be a reader and find out. Is it interesting? Is it clear? And remember, there's only one rule: there are no rules!
Poetry doesn't suffer these problems. An average poem doesn't take long enough to get bored. But a complete bundle of poems, all in the same format, the same beat, the same topic, the same song…
Rock bands in concert know what it takes to make their audience go bananas. A rock concert is a perfect metaphor for a bundle of poetry. We start with a hit, then a new song, an old one, and we end with our latest single. First an instrumental ballad, then something to sing along, and finally, an up-tempo song to dance on. Each member of the band gets a moment in the spotlight, with a solo or as a singer. Combined with the outfits, the lights, the act on stage and a return for an «Extra» Encore, a rock concert is like a collection of poems, jokes or short stories.
Musicians have the benefit of knowing their fans. That's the beauty of making art with a live audience. Writers hide in dungeons to throw their ink on paper, with no idea if readers will like their work. Get experience by making mistakes, learn from professionals, and give everything you can imagine. As long as you're open to learn and improve, you're doing fine.
Each poem is a story, with a start, a middle, and an end. With narrative techniques, you can give your creativity the chance to grow, and your readers will admire your versatility.
A novel writer has to stick to the same POV, tone, concept, for at least 70.000 words. A poet can (should) do something different each day. Who wants to read a long and boring novel when you can recite a poem for your live audience in less than a minute? Praising Ovations Every Time…
Allegory
A story that uses animals or stereotype characters to represent a more general message about real-life (historical) issues and/or events.
«Animal Farm», by George Orwell, represents the ideas of democracy, dictatorship, socialism and communism.
Aesop’s Fables, such as «The Ant and the Grasshopper» show flaws in human behaviour.
In 1.4 - «The Beauty and the Beast», coloured birds represent humanity, one race of many colours, each with a unique voice.
Anaphora or Repetition
Anaphora is when a word or phrase is repeated at the beginning of multiple sentences throughout a piece of writing. It's used to emphasise the repeated phrase and evoke strong feelings in the audience.
In his speech «We Shall Fight on the Beaches», Sir Winston Churchill's speech repeats the phrase "we shall fight", followed by the numerous places where the British army would continue battling during WWII, to give the troops and the British people confidence to win the war.
Martin Luther King's speech «I have a dream…»
In 1.6 - «Imagination», the repetition illustrates the difference between the classic and modern Higher Powers.
Anthropomorphism
An anthropomorphism occurs when something nonhuman, such as an animal, place, or inanimate object, behaves in a human-like way.
Mickey and Minnie Mouse can speak, wear clothes, sing, dance, drive cars, etc.
In 1.5 - «Money», money seems to have a life, making humans do things they would never do without the power of money.
Blurb / Cover Text
The trident of advertisement of a book are: the title, the cover and the text at the back, the so-called Blurb or Cover Text (We prefer the term «cover text», as «blurb» sounds like a goldfish with a hangover).
Once your title and cover caught the eye of a potential reader (this takes a split second), she might read the cover text to decide if your work is worth hor time and money. The cover text is marketing, meant to sell as many books as possible.
The cover text of «Precious Poetry» is a poem, which is nice and original, but its title is «Don't Read This Book», the worst possible marketing ever, clearly written by the authors and not by the Marketing & Sales Dept of the publisher.
Cameo
The appearance of a more-or-less famous person, often as an extra without text, always gives readers all sorts of positive emotions. Alfred Hitchcock often showed his face in his films. The drawings «Where's Wally?» made children study all the details and gave them a sensational feeling when they found Wally. Like beautiful illustrations of colourful birds, Cameos are gold coins that encourage readers to continue their voyage.
In 7.2 - «That Feeling», there's a Cameo of Amanda Gorman.
A Cameo isn't necessarily an appearance of a person. In 4.4 - «The Words and the Weapons», the line "Last night at the opera, next day at the races" is a Cameo (or an Allusion) of two classic films by the hilarious Marx Brothers and/or two epic albums by the rock group Queen, both titled "A Night At The Opera" and "A Day At The Races".
Catchphrase
When a certain (often: repeated) expression becomes popular outside the context, we call it a Catchphrase. Especially marketing is fond of catchphrases, as they give free promotion.
See if you can link these catchphrases back to their source:
- "Go ahead, make my day."
- "Yippee-ki-yay, Motherfucker."
- "May the Force be with you."
- "Shaken, not stirred."
The title 4.6 - «Getting Away With Murder» is a popular theme, not only in Mystery novels but also in politics, healthcare and business plans.
Cliffhanger
A gripping start will make your reader finish your story; a gripping finale will make hor buy your next book.
Cliffhangers is Foreshadowing at the end of a chapter or scene. Episodes of TV-series (specially the soap series) often end with a cliffhanger, something that makes you want to know what will happen next. Chapters of books, or poems in a bundle, have the same psychology. The story should be complete: we've fixed the problem or learnt something we can use later, but then, suddenly, a phenomenon takes place that might lead to another exciting adventure.
4.1 - «Conflict» ends with the Cliffhanger «The smart reader already knows how this will end: an editor always has the final word. And when that editor is a woman…»
The man in the van was not really a fan.
He kidnapped Cliff Richards, according to plan.
"We don't talk anymore,
Living doll. You're a bore.
Off a cliff, to the gallows, as high as you can."
Colloquialism
Colloquialism is the use of informal language and slang. It's often used by authors to lend a sense of realism to their characters and dialogue. Forms of colloquialism include words, phrases, and contractions that aren't proper words (such as «gonna» and «ain't»).
In general, readers want to read a story, not decipher a code or solve a puzzle. Colloquialism should not grow until it's an annoying accent.
"Hey, what's up, man?"
In 7.2 - «That Feeling»: "Wow! I wanna write like this."
Common Sense
The best example to explain the Common Sense narrative technique comes from Leo Sayer, the opening lines from his 1980 hit single «More Than I Can Say» (5 weeks at #2 on the Billboard Hot 100 chart), written in 1959 in around an hour by Sonny Curtis and Jerry Allison, both former members of Buddy Holly's band The Crickets:
Oh oh, yea, yea
I love you more than I can say
I'll love you twice as much tomorrow
I love you more than I can say
After this terrible violation of the Copyright Law (we didn't ask for permission to use the lyrics), we have only one more thing to say: if you don't know how to say it, buy a musical instrument, a paintbrush, a piece of marble or a pair of dancing shoes, but don't waste time and energy on poetry. If you can't say how much you love someone, don't say it, but spray it.
Oh, yeah, oh, yeah, even if you have nothing to say, you can become a star (on the B-side of Leo SAYER's single, you'll find the songs «Only Fooling» and «Millionaire», which explains everything) and perhaps your fans will love you twice as much tomorrow, but please… Don't do this at home. Use your Common Sense. There's only one writer who can get away with publishing blank pages…
2.1 - «Inspiration»
…and there's only one singer who can get away with having nothing to say. Be original.
Copy right
For starters, the copying of somebody else's work is an excellent experience. Most musicians play covers. Developing painters copy old masters and modern artists before they develop a style. Dancers copy moves. Filmmakers and actors copy famous scenes. Write an action scene like Lee Child, a dialogue like Dr Seuss, a description like Robin Hobb, or a poem like Tracy Chapman.
People are often afraid of the Copyright Law. You can copy anything, even publish it, as long as it makes people laugh (that makes it Satire and you get away with it). Every artist will love it when fans copy their work, their style, their art. As long as you don't sell it as your own work, you have the right to copy and learn as much as you like.
1.2 - «Letter to Tracy»
Deus Ex Machina
Literally: «God from the machinery». When an unexpected power or event saves a seemingly hopeless situation. Readers often consider this a weakness and publishers use it as a reason to reject a manuscript.
Good stories follow the hero on hor journey from Start to Happy End, with the idea that our hero learns or wins something on the way, so she can win the Final Fight with it.
Poor Peter wanted to become rich, but all his plans failed. When everything is lost, "suddenly" his grandmother brings him a winning lottery ticket.
In 5.3 - «Dear G.O.D.», the story ends with a postman, who was never mentioned earlier. He delivers the (unsatisfactory) excuse "There's nothing we can do.", which is a perfect victory for the lazy writer, but unacceptable for every serious reader. This same serious reader asks critically why the editor didn't change the sexist word «postman» with «mail delivery officer», which is proper inclusive language, and why she tolerated all this blasphemy. This isn't the end, lady. The Grammar Nazis will teach you a lesson you'll never forget.
Dialogue
One of the three pillars of narrative is Dialogue. The other two are Action and Description.
The journalist, explaining what the President said, that's Description and not Dialogue. A narrator, telling what happens, that's Action. Both come from the same Point of View. Dialogue includes conflict, a different opinion, or a difference in knowledge about the topic. Good Dialogue has the characteristics that 1) there's no chitchat, 2) there's friction, have-want, teach-learn, and 3) you can't add something else in between the lines. Good Dialogue is a game of verbal ping-pong: statement - question - reply - reaction - etc.
Inner Dialogue comes from one point of view, but it shows the conflict with the situation or the doubt of the speaker. Another dimension of Dialogue is when the reader can look into the head of a character, whose thoughts are opposite of what she says and does.
Stories are about people. When those people have a conflict (read: one of them wants something and the other stands in hor way), it screams for a solution. Both Action and Dialogue are perfect to show how important the matter is and what each side feels about it.
"Daddy, what's «sex»?"
"Well… eh…"
"And what's «a couple»?"
«She's four years old… Should I tell her about the birds and the bees now?»
"Why do you want to know, dear?"
"Because Mum said dinner's ready in a couple of sex."
With so-called Tags (X said), we link dialogue to the characters. The spoken words are marked with "quotes". When the Tag comes first, we use a double point, but when the tag follows the dialogue, a comma is used. A next speaker means a next paragraph.
"Hi. My name is Harry.", Harry said.
Ron said: "Hi. I'm Ron."
Dialogue in fiction is not the same as what people say in the real world. In fiction, every word counts. In good fiction, every speaker has hor own voice, but she might change that voice with the situation: at work with your boss, at home with your parents/children or out with your friends, your word choice changes.
2.5 - «Why?» shows how Dialogue can add speed and conflict to a scene. The text is alternated with Inner Dialogue (the narrator's thoughts), Description (Two coffees on the square) and Action (Asun brings us cheese on bread). Asun is the owner of the bar where Ai Ni and Ronaldo first met. That fact and her delicious «pitufo con queso» earned Asun a Cameo in this poem. Like John, she's an important character in this story.
When my brothers and sisters all fight,
And they shout at each other all night,
Both my parents agree
That the question should be:
Do you want to be friendly or right?
Epigraph
An epigraph is a famous quotation, poem, song, or other brief text at the beginning of a book or chapter. An epigraph is typically written by a different writer (with credit given) and might introduce overarching themes or messages in the work.
The first draft of «Precious Poetry» had this epigraph:
"Education is the most powerful weapon, which you can use to change the world." — Nelson Mandela.
It promises the reader can learn something, and perhaps a higher goal than just simple entertainment. The Editor took out the epigraph, as she learnt nothing and didn't find any change in her pockets either.
3.7 - «Imperfections Are Perfect» has an Epigraph by Groucho Marx, although not at the start but at the end, as Groucho preferred to do things differently.
Epilogue
An additional text, after the last chapter, that reveals what happened to the characters after the final events in the story.
The last film of the Harry Potter saga ends with Harry, Ginny and their children at the station, several years after the final fight between Harry and Voldemort.
The text of the Appendix is the Epilogue of «Precious Poetry», explaining some of the remaining questions, like «is this art?» and «is this good or bad?»
Flashback
A flashback is an interruption in a story to explain events that have already occurred before the time at which the narration takes place. This device gives the reader more background information and details about specific characters, events, plot points, and so on.
Flashbacks are elements of timing. «The Hunger Games» starts with Action, with the Inciting Incident (the lottery to pick two teenagers for The Games). If the story had started with a summary (Description, Tell-Don't-Show) of how society became like it is and a portrait of President Snow, it would be boring. An outstanding writer Shows that information later, when it's necessary to understand what's happening.
Writing coaches teach to keep flashbacks short and to the point, as they distract the reader from the main story. Isabel Allende shows, sometimes with entire chapters of flashback scenes, how a superb writer can treat her readers to a story inside a story.
Read «The House of the Spirits» or any other novel by Isabel Allende. Notice how many other writing classes she skipped and how many other rules she breaks. This lady knows how to tell a story. That's Art.
In 5.4 - «The Wizard and the Workout», the fairy says: "For a year it [the forest] was green, but the rain ceased to fall…"
Foreshadowing (Chekhov's Gun)
An author indirectly hints at something that will happen later on, to add tension or curiosity. We also call this device Chekhov's Gun, as Anton Chekhov explained it like this: «If you show a gun in the first chapter, it should go off before the end of the story, or you should leave it out.»
In a Mystery or Action Thriller, a minor character wants to leave, but it's raining. The Main Character says: "Take my coat and my hat." Now, every reader knows: someone will shoot the minor character, thinking it's the MC…
In Appendix, the writers say: "We'll come back to this idea later." We're already in Appendix D, only «About the Authors» remains, and we haven't seen anything yet. Do you feel tension? Or is this just sloppy writing, not fulfilling the promise to the readers?
Hidden Joke
A hidden joke is a joke, disguised as simple information.
«Spanish football fans know everything about the game, about each of the players, they even know the profession of the mother of the referee…» Plain info. Nothing funny. But what happens when the reader knows something about football in Spain? She thinks: «Hijo de puta!» and suddenly it's funny. Yes, you'll need to use your brains (that's why we have them), and yes, it requires some extra info or perhaps some research, but the good part is that hidden jokes makes you laugh and you'll feel great about yourself, for finding this little Easter egg.
Poem 1.2 - «Letter to Tracy» has two hidden jokes. The editor doesn't recognise the original rock ballad, which makes the smart reader feel superior. The editor also shamelessly breaks the Copyright Law by repeating the texts from the Holy Bribe-all of Publishing, a song by Frank 'The Voice' and a slogan that's registered as owned by a commercial chain of restaurants.
Imagery
Imagery is when an author describes a scene, object, or idea so that it appeals to our senses (taste, smell, sight, touch, or hearing). This device is often used to help the reader clearly visualise parts of the story by creating a strong mental picture.
4.2 - «Obvious» has tact (sticky), taste (club soda and lime), sound (with rhythm and rhyme), a strong verb to visualise the action (poured me a drink), and visual word play (Lime Rickey).
In Medias Res
When a story doesn't start at the beginning, but in the middle or even at the end, we call that «In Medias Res». The missing part of the story is told via Flashbacks.
6.7 - «Finals and Fines» starts at the end of the story, when the writer feels the end is near, and ends with the start, the white page.
Irony
Saying one thing but meaning the opposite, often for humorous effect. Sarcasm might do the same, but Irony is friendly, a wink, while Sarcasm is sharp, a spit.
In 3.1 - «Life of a Poet», chapter The Fifth Reader, in the first three lines, the reader cheers about the nice writing, but the fourth line, "What is it about?", shows the reader's ignorance.
Situational irony is when the opposite happens to what we're expecting.
Bridget Jones is convinced that she's invited to a costume party, but when she gets there, everyone is formally dressed, except Bridget in her bunny costume.
3.7 - «Imperfections Are Perfect» shows how perfection is a flaw; it's perfect to make mistakes.
Dramatic irony is when the reader or audience is aware of something and the actors or characters are not.
In 5.3 - «Dear G.O.D.», the reader will understand what the narrator/poet refuses to see: life is an opportunity, but taking it or leaving it is our own responsibility.
MacGuffin
The thing spies are after, the treasure Indiana Jones wants to find. Although it needs no explanation that the MacGuffin is important (the hero spends an entire novel to find it), it's usually not something that's needed in the story. Just finding it or getting it is enough for a happy ending.
Beauty is the MacGuffin in «Precious Poetry».
Noodle Incident
Something has happened. The characters in the story know about it, but they don't explain the event to the reader (usually because one of them is ashamed about it). The term comes from the comic «Calvin and Hobbes».
In «Star Wars V - The Empire Strikes Back» (1980), there was a Noodle Incident between Han Solo and Lando Calrissian about the Millennium Falcon. In «Solo, A Star Wars Story» (2018), we find out what has happened.
In the Editor's Note below 1.5 - «Money», the editor refers to a Noodle Incident that Ronaldo7 caused during the 2018 European Games. For further info, read Ronaldo Siète's novel «The French Formula» (part 3 of the L.S.D.-series, published by Editorial Perdido).
Poetical Justice
When, in the end, the Good gets the reward and the Bad gets the punishment, we call it Poetical Justice. The Good is usually synonym for empathy, sacrifice, hard-working and honest, while the Bad stands for selfishness, violence, theft, rape, lies and killing.
In «A Christmas Carol in Prose», by Charles Dickens, tight-fisted Scrooge changes into a generous person and all the characters around him get a share of his new happiness.
Poetical Justice is our major reason to read fiction, to escape from the real world, that doesn't reward good behaviour and hardly punishes evil.
If «Precious Poetry» is truly a work of art, it should Show, Don't Tell Poetical Justice to poor, hard-working people. So far, we saw nothing, but we still have one final chapter, and everyone knows that in fiction, the hero will always save the planet in the dying seconds.
Point Of View
Every story is told from a certain Point Of View (POV). The most common are 1st person POV (I went to the park…) and the 3rd person POV or Narrator (He went to the park…). Help-Yourself books and football players during interviews frequently use the 2nd person POV (You step on the field with confidence, but after they score the 3-0, you think…).
There are several reasons to pick a certain POV. 1st POV limits the list of scenes to those where the I-narrator is present, and that might work great if the writer has information to hide. If the writer wants to tell the story from different angles, like a chess-player who wants to see the battlefield with the eyes of hor opponent, a 3rd POV Narrator might be a better choice. Of course, another character might tell the I-narrator what happened at the other scene, and the 3rd POV Narrator can also hide information.
The follow-up question is: "Past tense? Or present tense?" If you tell your friend over a cup of tea about your day, you (unconsciously) use the 1st person past tense or the 3rd person Narrator past tense (when the story is about someone else), which makes those two the most natural choices. When you tell a joke ("A man enters a bar and says…") you switch to present tense, to make the story more direct and alive.
Usually, you stick with your choice during the entire story. Think this over before you start (changing POV halfway is a lot of work). In case of doubt, write the first chapter and one or two key scenes in every POV you can; the answer will show itself soon enough.
Every chapter of Paula Hawkins's «The Girl On The Train» has the title of another character, the one who tells the story in 1st person POV.
The Appendix of «Precious Poetry» shows the 1st person-plural POV: «we» tell the story. «Precious Poetry» also shows the Author's Notes vs the Editor's Notes,