Treatments refer to the different conditions to which the
experimental and control groups are subject to. In the example considered,
the two treatments are the parents with regular earnings and those with
no regular earnings. Likewise, if a research study attempts to examine
through an experiment the comparative effect of three different types of
fertilizers on the yield of rice crop, then the three types of fertilizers would
be treated as the three treatments.
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9. Experiment:
Experiment refers to the process of verifying the truth of a
statistical hypothesis relating to a given research problem. For instance,
an experiment may be conducted to examine the yield of a certain new
variety of rice crop developed. Further, Experiments may be categorized
into two types, namely, ‘absolute experiment’ and ‘comparative experiment’.
If a researcher wishes to determine the impact of a chemical fertilizer on
the yield of a particular variety of rice crop, then it is known as absolute
experiment. Meanwhile, if the researcher wishes to determine the impact
of chemical fertilizer as compared to the impact of bio-fertilizer, then the
experiment is known as a comparative experiment.
10. Experimental Unit(s):
Experimental units refer to the pre-determined plots, characteristics
or the blocks, to which different treatments are applied. It is worth
mentioning here that such experimental units must be selected with great
caution.
4.3 Types Of Research Design:
There are different types of research designs. They may be broadly
categorized as:
(1)
Exploratory Research Design;
(2)
Descriptive and Diagnostic Research Design; and
(3)
Hypothesis-Testing Research Design.
1. Exploratory Research Design:
The Exploratory Research Design is known as formulative research
design. The main objective of using such a research design is to formulate
a research problem for an in-depth or more precise investigation, or for
developing a working hypothesis from an operational aspect. The major
purpose of such studies is the discovery of ideas and insights. Therefore,
such a research design suitable for such a study should be flexible enough to
provide opportunity for considering different dimensions of the problem
under study. The in-built flexibility in research design is required as the
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initial research problem would be transformed into a more precise one
in the exploratory study, which in turn may necessitate changes in the
research procedure for collecting relevant data. Usually, the following
three methods are considered in the context of a research design for such
studies. They are (a) a survey of related literature; (b) experience survey;
and (c) analysis of ‘insight-stimulating’ instances.
2. Descriptive And Diagnostic Research Design:
A Descriptive Research Design is concerned with describing
the characteristics of a particular individual or a group. Meanwhile, a
diagnostic research design determines the frequency with which a variable
occurs or its relationship with another variable. In other words, the study
analyzing whether a certain variable is associated with another comprises
a diagnostic research study. On the other hand, a study that is concerned
with specific predictions or with the narration of facts and characteristics
related to an individual, group or situation, are instances of descriptive
research studies. Generally, most of the social research design falls under
this category. As a research design, both the descriptive and diagnostic
studies share common requirements, hence they are grouped together.
However, the procedure to be used and the research design need to planned
carefully. The research design must also make appropriate provision for
protection against bias and thus maximize reliability, with due regard
to the completion of the research study in an economical manner. The
research design in such studies should be rigid and not flexible. Besides, it
must also focus attention on the following:
a) Formulation of the objectives of the study,
b) Proper designing of the methods of data collection,
c) Sample selection,
d) Data collection,
e) Processing and analysis of the collected data, and
f) Reporting the findings.
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3. Hypothesis-Testing Research Design:
Hypothesis-Testing Research Designs are those in which the
researcher tests the hypothesis of causal relationship between two or more
variables. These studies require procedures that would not only decrease
bias and enhance reliability, but also facilitate deriving inferences about
the causality. Generally, experiments satisfy such requirements. Hence,
when research design is discussed in such studies, it often refers to the
design of experiments.
4.4 Importance Of Research Design:
The need for a research design arises out of the fact that it facilitates
the smooth conduct of the various stages of research. It contributes to
making research as efficient as possible, thus yielding the maximum
information with minimum effort, time and expenditure. A research
design helps to plan in advance, the methods to be employed for collecting
the relevant data and the techniques to be adopted for their analysis. This
would help in pursuing the objectives of the research in the best possible
manner, provided the available staff, time and money are given. Hence,
the research design should be prepared with utmost care, so as to avoid
any error that may disturb the entire project. Thus, research design plays a
crucial role in attaining the reliability of the results obtained, which forms
the strong foundation of the entire process of the research work.
Despite its significance, the purpose of a well-planned design is
not realized at times. This is because it is not given the importance that it
deserves. As a consequence, many researchers are not able to achieve the
purpose for which the research designs are formulated, due to which they
end up arriving at misleading conclusions. Therefore, faulty designing of
the research project tends to render the research exercise meaningless.
This makes it imperative that an efficient and suitable research design
must be planned before commencing the process of research. The research
design helps the researcher to organize his/her ideas in a proper form,
which in turn facilitates him/her to identify the inadequacies and faults in
them. The research design is also discussed with other experts for their
comments and critical evaluation, without which it would be difficult
for any critic to provide a comprehensive review and comments on the
proposed study.
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4.5 Characteristics Of A Good Research Design:
A good research design often possesses the qualities of being flexible,
suitable, efficient, economical and so on. Generally, a research design which
minimizes bias and maximizes the reliability of the data collected and
analysed is considered a good design (Kothari 1988). A research design
which does not allow even the smal est experimental error is said to be
the best design for investigation. Further, a research design that yields
maximum information and provides an opportunity of viewing the various
dimensions of a research problem is considered to be the most appropriate
and efficient design. Thus, the question of a good design relates to the
purpose or objective and nature of the research problem studied. While a
research design may be good, it may not be equally suitable to all studies.
In other words, it may be lacking in one aspect or the other in the case of
some other research problems. Therefore, no single research design can
be applied to all types of research problems.
A research design suitable for a specific research problem would usually
involve the following considerations:
i. The methods of gathering the information;
ii. The skills and availability of the researcher and his/her staff, if
any;
iii. The objectives of the research problem being studied;
iv. The nature of the research problem being studied; and
v. The available monetary support and duration of time for the
research work.
5 Case Study Research:
The method of exploring and analyzing the life or functioning of
a social or economic unit, such as a person, a family, a community, an
institution, a firm or an industry is called case study method. The objective
of case study method is to examine the factors that cause the behavioural
patterns of a given unit and its relationship with the environment. The
data for a study are always gathered with the purpose of tracing the natural
history of a social or economic unit, and its relationship with the social or
economic factors, besides the forces involved in its environment. Thus,
a researcher conducting a study using the case study method attempts to
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understand the complexity of factors that are operative within a social or
economic unit as an integrated totality. Burgess (Kothari, 1988) described
the special significance of the case study in understanding the complex
behaviour and situations in specific detail. In the context of social research,
he called such data as social microscope.
5.1 Criteria For Evaluating Adequacy Of Case Study:
John Dollard (Dollard, 1935) specified seven criteria for evaluating
the adequacy of a case or life history in the context of social research. They
are:
i. The subject being studied must be viewed as a specimen in a cultural
set up. That is, the case selected from its total context for the purpose of
study should be considered a member of the particular cultural group
or community. The scrutiny of the life history of the individual must
be carried out with a view to identify the community values, standards
and shared ways of life.
ii. The organic motors of action should be socially relevant. This is to say
that the action of the individual cases should be viewed as a series of
reactions to social stimuli or situations. To put in simple words, the
social meaning of behaviour should be taken into consideration.
iii. The crucial role of the family-group in transmitting the culture should
be recognized. This means, as an individual is the member of a family,
the role of the family in shaping his/her behaviour should never be
ignored.
iv. The specific method of conversion of organic material into social
behaviour should be clearly demonstrated. For instance, case-histories
that discuss in detail how basically a biological organism, that is man,
gradually transforms into a social person are particularly important.
v. The constant transformation of character of experience from
childhood to adulthood should be emphasized. That is, the life-
history should portray the inter-relationship between the individual’s
various experiences during his/her life span. Such a study provides a
comprehensive understanding of an individual’s life as a continuum.
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vi. The ‘social situation’ that contributed to the individual’s gradual
transformation should carefully and continuously be specified as a
factor. One of the crucial criteria for life-history is that an individual’s
life should be depicted as evolving itself in the context of a specific
social situation and partially caused by it.
vii. The life-history details themselves should be organized according
to some conceptual framework, which in turn would facilitate their
generalizations at higher levels.
These criteria discussed by Dollard emphasize the specific link of
co-ordinated, related, continuous and configured experience in a cultural
pattern that motivated the social and personal behaviour. Although, the
criteria indicated by Dollard are principally perfect, some of them are
difficult to put to practice.
Dollard (1935) attempted to express the diverse events depicted in
the life-histories of persons during the course of repeated interviews by
utilizing psycho-analytical techniques in a given situational context. His
criteria of life-history originated directly from this experience. While the
life-histories possess independent significance as research documents, the
interviews recorded by the investigators can afford, as Dollard observed,
“rich insights into the nature of the social situations experienced by them”.
It is a well-known fact that an individual’s life is very complex.
Till date there is hardly any technique that can establish some kind of
uniformity, and as a result ensure the cumulative of case-history materials
by isolating the complex totality of a human life. Nevertheless, although
case history data are difficult to put to rigorous analysis, a skilful handling
and interpretation of such data could help in developing insights into
cultural conflicts and problems arising out of cultural-change.
Gordon Allport in (Kothari 1988) has recommended the following
aspects so as to broaden the perspective of case-study data:
i. If the life-history is written in first person, it should be as
comprehensive and coherent as possible.
ii. Life-histories must be written for knowledgeable persons. tThat is, if
the enquiry of study is sociological in nature, the researcher should
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write it on the assumption that it would be read largely by sociologists
only.
iii. It would be advisable to supplement case study data by observational,
statistical and historical data, as they provide standards for assessing
the reliability and consistency of the case study materials. Further,
such data offer a basis for generalizations.
iv. Efforts must be made to verify the reliability of life-history data by
examining the internal consistency of the collected material, and by
repeating the interviews with the concerned person. Besides this,
personal interviews with the persons who are well-acquainted with
him/her, belonging to his/her own group should be conducted.
v. A judicious combination of different techniques for data-collection
is crucial for collecting data that are culturally meaningful and
scientifically significant.
vi. Life-histories or case-histories may be considered as an adequate basis
for generalization to the extent that they are typical or representative
of a certain group.
vii. The researcher engaged in the collection of case study data should
never ignore the unique or typical cases. He/she should include them
as exceptional cases.
Case histories are filled with valuable information of a personal
or private nature. Such information not only helps the researcher to
portray the personality of the individual, but also the social background
that contributed to it. Besides, it also helps in the formulation of relevant
hypotheses. In general, although Blummer (in Wilkinson and Bhandarkar,
1979) was critical of documentary material, he gave due credit to case
histories by acknowledging the fact that the personal documents offer an
opportunity to the researcher to develop his/her spirit of enquiry. The
analysis of a particular subject would be more effective if the researcher
acquires close acquaintance with it through personal documents. However,
Blummer also acknowledges the limitations of the personal documents.
According to him, such documents do not entirely fulfill the criteria of
adequacy, reliability, and representativeness. Despite these shortcomings,
avoiding their use in any scientific study of personal life would be wrong,
as these documents become necessary and significant for both theory-
building and practice.
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In spite of these formidable limitations, case study data are used
by anthropologists, sociologists, economists and industrial psychiatrists.
Gordon Allport (Kothari, 1988) strongly recommends the use of case study
data for in-depth analysis of a subject. For, it is one’s acquaintance with
an individual that instills a desire to know his/her nature and understand
them. The first stage involves understanding the individual and all the
complexity of his/her nature. Any haste in analyzing and classifying the
individual would create the risk of reducing his/her emotional world into
artificial bits. As a consequence, the important emotional organizations,
anchorages and natural identifications characterizing the personal life
of the individual might not yield adequate representation. Hence, the
researcher should understand the life of the subject. Therefore, the totality
of life-processes reflected in the well-ordered life-history documents
become invaluable source of stimulating insights. Such life-history
documents provide the basis for comparisons that contribute to statistical
generalizations and help to draw inferences regarding the uniformities
in human behaviour, which are of great value. Even if some personal
documents do not provide ordered data about personal lives of people,
which is the basis of psychological science, they should not be ignored.
This is because the final aim of science is to understand, control and make
predictions about human life. Once they are satisfied, the theoretical
and practical importance of personal documents must be recognized as
significant. Thus, a case study may be considered as the beginning and the
final destination of abstract knowledge.
6 Hypothesis:
“Hypothesis may be defined as a proposition or a set of propositions
set forth as an explanation for the occurrence of some specified group
of phenomena either asserted merely as a provisional conjecture to guide
some investigation in the light of established facts” (Kothari, 1988). A
research hypothesis is quite often a predictive statement, which is capable
of being tested using scientific methods that involve an independent and
some dependent variables. For instance, the following statements may be
considered:
i. “Students who take tuitions perform better than the others who do
not receive tuitions” or,
ii. “The female students perform as well as the male students”.
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These two statements are hypotheses that can be objectively verified
and tested. Thus, they indicate that a hypothesis states what one is looking
for. Besides, it is a proposition that can be put to test in order to examine
its validity.
6.1 Characteristics Of Hypothesis:
A hypothesis should have the following characteristic features:-
i. A hypothesis must be precise and clear. If it is not precise and clear,
then the inferences drawn on its basis would not be reliable.
ii. A hypothesis must be capable of being put to test. Quite often, the
research programmes fail owing to its incapability of being subject to
testing for validity. Therefore, some prior study may be conducted by
the researcher in order to make a hypothesis testable. A hypothesis
“is tested if other deductions can be made from it, which in turn can
be confirmed or disproved by observation” (Kothari, 1988).
iii. A hypothesis must state relationship between two variables, in the
case of relational hypotheses.
iv. A hypothesis must be specific and limited in scope. This is because a
simpler hypothesis generally would be easier to test for the researcher.
And therefore, he/she must formulate such hypotheses.
v. As far as possible, a hypothesis must be stated in the simplest language,
so as to make it understood by all concerned. However, it should be
noted that simplicity of a hypothesis is not related to its significance.
vi. A hypothesis must be consistent and derived from the most known
facts. In other words, it should be consistent with a substantial body
of established facts. That is, it must be in the form of a statement
which is most likely to occur.
vii. A hypothesis must be amenable to testing within a stipulated or
reasonable period of time. No matter how excellent a hypothesis,
a researcher should not use it if it cannot be tested within a given
period of time, as no one can afford to spend a life-time on collecting
data to test it.
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viii. A hypothesis should state the facts that give rise to the necessity of
looking for an explanation. This is to say that by using the hypothesis,
and other known and accepted generalizations, a researcher must be
able to derive the original problem condition. Therefore, a hypothesis
should explain what it actually wants to explain, and for this it should
also have an empirical reference.
6.2 Concepts Relating To Testing Of Hypotheses:
Testing of hypotheses requires a researcher to be familiar with
various concepts concerned with it such as:
1)
Null Hypothesis And Alternative Hypothesis:
In the context of statistical analysis, hypotheses are of two types
viz., null hypothesis and alternative hypothesis. When two methods A
and B are compared on their relative superiority, and it is assumed that
both the methods are equally good, then such a statement is called as the
null hypothesis. On the other hand, if method A is considered relatively
superior to method B, or vice-versa, then such a statement is known as
an alternative hypothesis. The null hypothesis is expressed as H , while
0
the alternative hypothesis is expressed as H . For example, if a researcher
a
wants to test the hypothesis that the population mean (μ) is equal to the
hypothesized mean (H ) = 100, then the null hypothesis should be stated as
0
the population mean is equal to the hypothesized mean 100. Symbolically
it may be written as:-
H : = μ = μ H = 100
0
0
If sample results do not support this null hypothesis, then it should
be concluded that something else is true. The conclusion of rejecting the
null hypothesis is called as alternative hypothesis H . To put it in simple
1
words, the set of alternatives to the null hypothesis is termed as the
alternative hypothesis. If H is accepted, then it implies that H is being
0
a
rejected. On the other hand, if H is rejected, it means that H is being
0
a
accepted. For H : μ = μ H = 100, the following three possible alternative
0
0
hypotheses may be considered:
28
Alternative hypothesis
To be read as follows
The alternative hypothesis is that the
H : μ ≠ μ H
1
0
population mean is not equal to 100, i.e., it
could be greater than or less than 100
H : μ > μ H
The alternative hypothesis is that the
1
0
population mean is greater than 10