The gifts reported to be commonly given in sexual
hinting at the need for a loan. Others did not refer to
encounters were sugarcane, peanuts, soap, body lotion,
material exchange at all but delayed agreeing to have sex
underwear and underskirts. If money was exchanged it
until they were given, or were promised, money or gifts.
was generally between Tsh 200 to Tsh 1,500, though occa-
Sexual negotiation sometimes involved explicit bar-
sionally the range extended from Tsh 100 to Tsh 5,000.
gaining between potential sexual partners.
Several informants reported that the amount acceptable
"When I told the girl that I wanted to have sex with
had recently fallen due to general economic circum-
her, she told me to give her Tsh 2,000. I told her that I
stances:
did not have that amount of money and the girl said I
"For many, now that money has become scarce, even
should then give her Tsh 1,500. I told the girl that I did
Tsh 200 is enough [laugh]." (Young woman: PO-99-C-
not have that amount, but I could give her Tsh 700.
8-2f )
The girl said that the money was not enough, and
The type of gift or amount of money exchanged varied
after long negotiations we agreed that I should give
from one encounter to another according to negotiation.
her Tsh 1,000". (Young man: PO-01-C-2-1 m)
We will first describe the process of negotiation and then
Payment was not always made before sex took place.
the factors affecting the actors' bargaining power.
For example, when a girl asked a male informant for Tsh
Process of negotiation
1,000 before they had sex, he told her:
Explicit sexual negotiation was almost always initiated by
"I don't do such business, I only give money after the
men, although females may have actively encouraged it.
act [having sex]". (PO-99-C-5-2f )
The statement ' nakupenda' ('I love/like you') was often
In this case he did pay as requested. In on-going rela-
accompanied with some reference to material exchange,
tionships sex was sometimes provided on credit, young
since men believed this to be a good way to persuade a
women being understanding of their partners' financial
girl/woman to have sex:
difficulties.
Interviewer: What are the first words you use when
"If the boy doesn't have money and the girl demands
making arrangements for making love?
it, the boy asks the girl to lend it to him, that is, he
Respondent (16 yr old school boy, Std 7): The main
makes love with her and gives her money on another
words which are used to induce a girl is simply to give
day. In fact after some days or a week, the boy pays
her money.
the girl her money. Usually due to adverse life situa-
Interviewer: Mmh?
tions, girls are given very little money, like Tsh 50, Tsh
Respondent: I tell her: 'If you agree, I shall give you a
100 or less than Tsh 1,000". (Young man: PO-00-I-4-
certain amount of money'. And this is due to her lust
4f )
for money, in order to buy some necessities so that
It was generally considered disreputable for a woman to
she can look like her friends. (II-99-I-42-1 m)
explicitly solicit sex. Formal prostitution (umalaya) was
According to many women, men sometimes asked a
condemned and women suspected of it were the subject
girl/woman to specify how much money she wanted for
of gossip. A malaya was a woman who openly had sex
sex immediately after they approached her.
with many partners in exchange for money/gifts, not
If the man did not mention gifts in his seduction some
maintaining the discretion and at least appearance of
girls/women raised it themselves. For example, women
monogamy of respectable women.
frequently asked for a soda, not meaning literally a soft
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Intermediaries: "Posta"
she had AIDS since ...when she came to [Village 4] she
The vast majority of young men reported that they had, at
was ready to have sex for small amounts of money
some point, involved intermediaries in their sexual nego-
between 200/- to 300/- shillings.' (PO-02-I-4-1 m)
tiation (also common in Kilimanjaro [25]). Intermediaries Nearly all informants reported that newcomers to the
were referred to as posta (literally 'post office' or 'mail')
village, of both sexes, were perceived as highly attractive
and were individuals close to either the male pursuer or
sexual partners. These newcomers may have been com-
the woman being sought (e.g. close relatives, friends, or
plete strangers or may have emigrated from the village
fellow members of work teams). The posta encouraged
but occasionally returned on celebration days. Having sex
the girl/woman to like a particular man, and facilitated
with a newcomer was prestigious, especially if s/he had
him giving her gifts. The female researchers were them-
come from a town. It was observed and reported that
selves sometimes approached by posta, as happened to
urban girls and women usually had 'good clothes', had
this 25 year old fieldworker: '... she asked me whether I
'nicely made hair' (chemically softened), and were cleaner
would also like to have a lover. She told me that if I took a
than most village women. Men competed with each other
lover, he would help me meet my daily requirements.'
to be the first to have sex with a female newcomer, some-
(PO-99-C-5-2f )
times offering her as much as Tsh 5,000. The four female
Posta could weaken or strengthen the girl/woman's bar-
researchers experienced this themselves during partici-
gaining position, which usually depended on his or her
pant observation, with some men offering as much as Tsh
relationship to the two parties. If related to the boy/man,
10,000 for sex. However, the sexual attractiveness of new-
the posta was likely to encourage the girl to agree to sex
comers was likely to wane as soon as they were known to
for only limited money or gifts, while if related to the girl,
have been seduced locally, and if they came to be seen as
the posta was likely to help her negotiate more money or
having had several partners they rapidly acquired the sta-
gifts.
tus of wasimbe, with limited bargaining power.
Posta's efforts, and others who helped facilitate an
The most important attribute shaping the desirability
encounter, were sometimes rewarded with small gifts
of a male partner was his perceived earning capacity.
from the man. The fieldworkers noted several examples
Schoolboys had the least to offer, in contrast to young
of a younger sibling/relative being given money for keep-
men with small businesses or who were farming, and
ing silent, unlocking a door for a girl to return from hav-
adult men.
ing sex, and/or having to share a room in which a couple
"Most girls prefer villagers [not at school] to school
had sex.
boys [as sexual partners], because villagers give them
Relative bargaining power: attributes
more money than school boys. Schoolboys give Tsh
The amount of money or kind of gift exchanged was
200 and at most Tsh 500, while a villager gives Tsh
shaped by the relative bargaining power of the sexual
1,000 to a girl." (17 yr old Sukuma woman, at school
partners. Several factors influenced this, relating to each
Std 4: PO-99-I-1-2f )
partner's general attributes and particular circumstances.
Furthermore, a few girls said that schoolboys not only
The main attributes that made a girl or young woman
offered very little for sex, but frequently failed to pay what
desirable, and therefore able to demand greater remuner-
they promised. Men with little income were likely to have
ation, were her physical attractiveness, in particular light
few partners.
skin colour and large buttocks, her appearance in terms
It was reported that the men most favoured as sexual
of clean, smart clothes and elaborately made up hair, her
partners were those with a steady, relatively high income,
respectability and her prestige as a newcomer.
such as teachers, government employees (e.g. village
The greater a young woman's respectability, the more
authorities) and business people, and a few women
desirable she was to her potential partner and the more
reported relationships with such men. Young women
she had to lose by agreeing to sex, which usually meant
with sexual partners who owned shops or kiosks said that
that more valuable gifts were exchanged. Meanwhile one
they went there to select whatever item they wanted
of the characteristics of less sexually reputable women,
without paying, or to ask for money.
primarily wasimbe, was that they were said to be less dis-
Personal attractiveness, whether in terms of "good
criminating about their sexual partners, caring less about
behaviour" ( tabia nzuri) or appearance, seemed to be less
their age or marital status, and they agreed to sex for very
important for a man to win sexual partners than "the
low prices (as little as Tsh 100). Women defined by men
weight of his pockets". There was a common saying that:
as "bad" for being disrespectful ( kiburi) or wahuni,
"There are no unattractive/ugly men, and if there are,
attracted less sexual partners and received very little for
then they are those without money". However, if a man
sex. Furthermore, young women who agreed to sex for
was perceived to be attractive a young woman might
minimal reward were sometimes suspected of having
accept a more modest payment for sex, while if unattract-
AIDS. 'He said that it seems that the girl was aware that
ive he was likely to be refused unless he offered a lot
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more. The following fieldnote shows how girls sometimes
bargaining skills. Schoolgirls in their early teens usually
demanded a price clearly intended to avoid sex, though
only received sugarcane or peanuts from sex with school-
we cannot tell why: 'K2-m (a 23 yr old man) said they
boys, as a male recent school leaver said: "I mean, there at
were coming from the well where they had followed some
school, girls are finished for just peanuts." However, older
girls. ...the girls had told them that if they wanted to have
girls, and girls who had out-of-school lovers, could
sex with them, they should give them Tsh 10,000. They
demand and receive larger gifts, partly because their part-
said they were not ready to give the girls that amount of
ners had more money, but in some cases because they
money to have sex with them only once...they could have
argued that they had less parental support and therefore
sex with lots of other girls for a small amount of money.'
greater needs.
(PO-00-I-4-1 m)
The dry, harvest period was a festive time with tradi-
Like female newcomers, male newcomers to the village
tional drumming, dancing competitions and little farm
were particularly valued as sexual partners. This was pri-
work. Farmers were at their most affluent shortly after
marily because of their perceived affluence, but also the
harvest when they sold their cash crops, and their avail-
prestige of their presumed modern urban lifestyle. The
able money then dwindled until the next harvest, unless
male researchers were thus also sought as potential sex-
they found employment as labourers during the planting
ual partners, although less directly than were the female
season. Consequently the frequency of sex, and payment
researchers, for instance women tried to get the female
accepted for sex, varied seasonally. During the rainy sea-
researchers to act as intermediaries to access male
son, it could often be as little as Tsh 200, while after har-
researchers. Women known as wasimbe, or reputed to be
vest this frequently increased to as much as Tsh 1,000.
wahuni, preferred newcomers who were ignorant of their
Similarly, fishermen were more likely to agree to pay
sexual reputations which might have undermined their
large sums for sex when they had just returned from a
bargaining power.
fishing trip and had ready cash. In lakeshore villages a few
There were occasional evening video shows in the vil-
young women targeted fishermen when they had just
lages, brought from the district capitals by young men.
returned from a catch, by strolling about on the beach in
Some young women got a man to pay their Tsh 100
tight fitting dresses. These women were said to ' kuchuna
entrance fee, agreeing to have sex afterwards with their
mbuzi' , literally 'skin the goat', meaning lure the fisher-
benefactor. Frequently this was one of those running the
men into having sex for money.
show:
As a relationship developed, bargaining power tended
"The young men who come to show videos in the vil-
to increase for the man/boy. It was widely reported that
lage usually have sex with village girls, because they
more money or gifts were necessary to seduce a girl or
allow them to enter free of charge and are also seen as
woman into starting a sexual relationship than to have sex
having money and thus being potential providers."
on subsequent occasions:
(Male attendee at video show: PO-99-I-1-2f )
"In the beginning of a relationship the man gives rela-
Relative bargaining power: circumstances
tively more money. But as the relationship continues
Whatever their attributes, partners' current circum-
he reduces it, or even becomes sly so as to have sex for
stances also shaped their bargaining power, in particular
free... [When] I met my boyfriend for the first... [sex-
women's immediate material needs, men's access to ready
ual encounter] he gave me Tsh 1,500; this was
cash, and the stage of their relationship.
reduced to Tsh 1,000 the second time." (Sukuma
In general, the more affluent a girl or woman was, the
schoolgirl, Std 7: PO-01-I-1-2f )
greater payment she was likely to demand before agreeing
Several reasons may combine to explain why less was
to have sex. As an msimbe observed, to the affirmation of
exchanged for sex after first intercourse within a relation-
another:
ship (also found in Durban, South Africa [8]). The young
"If a man realises that a girl has no source of income
woman might have become less desirable to her partner,
he takes advantage of her and can even have sex with
the prestige of seduction having been achieved and fanta-
her for Tsh 100.... Men take advantage of a woman
sies of sexual contact realised. Meanwhile the woman's
who does not have her own source of income. If you
respectability had been undermined by her succumbing
just wait for men they make fun of you, like goodness
to his pressure to have sex. Furthermore, most men were
knows what. They will really show you contempt. It is
unable to maintain the gifts offered for first sex. Several
better that you have your own small source of income,
young people reported that consequently young women
and if a hawara (lover) adds to your capital, you just
often ended relationships after a few sexual encounters,
continue with it". (19 yr old Sukuma woman: PO-99-
to find more lucrative ones:
C-5-2f )
Respondent (14 yr old Sukuma school girl) It was me
However, the amount given for sex was also shaped by
who rejected him.... I was asking for money and he
the male partner's access to money and the girl/woman's
refused, I asked for body oil and he refused
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Interviewer: Now, that [new boyfriend], does he give
repeated several times they would seek a new partner. A
you money?
young female informant bitterly described her boyfriend
Respondent: He gives me money. I buy body oil, exer-
as "sly":
cise books and pencils
"He tells you, 'Tomorrow, when tomorrow comes.' He
Interviewer: About how much money does he give
says, 'Tomorrow', like that, and you continue to have
you?
sex with him. Eventually a month is over without
Respondent: Tsh 1,500. (II-99-C-51-2f )
being paid your money". (PO-99-C-5-2f )
Exchanging sex for gifts or money thus gave women an
Failure to fulfil such promises could lead to consider-
incentive to change partners, although it encouraged men
able animosity, especially in situations where the young
to keep them.
woman's relatives knew about it, and particularly if they
Bullying, tricks and deception
benefited from the sexual exchange. Men were some-
There were various ways in which men sometimes
times compelled to honour promises of payment, some-
manipulated women or girls' circumstances to strengthen
times surreptitiously:
their bargaining position. Physical coercion in sex was
"When a boy agrees he will give a girl money if they
generally condemned, and sometimes resulted in fines by
make love, and then afterwards he doesn't give it, that
the village authorities, but cases rarely reached that level,
girl goes to tell her grandmother. The grandmother
and then usually only if there was evidence of extreme
gets very annoyed that the boy makes a fool of her
violence, the girl was very young, and/or there was no
grandchild by not giving her anything. The grand-
prior gift-giving [53]. It was difficult to ascertain the prev-mother looks for local medicines to make the boy
alence of coercive sex, but threats seemed more common
'become a woman' [impotent], that is ... he loses the
than actual violence, which was primarily associated with
power of making love.... After some time the man dis-
heavy drinkers. Threats were generally made when a
covers the change and immediately goes to a tradi-
young woman was thought to be reneging on an explicit
tional healer for divination. The traditional healer
or implicit agreement to have sex in return for a gift. For
tells him the truth, that he did not give the girl her
instance, young women reported that if they refused to
money after making love with her. That boy goes to
have sex after consuming a gift at festivals, men often
seek forgiveness from the girl and gives her much
threatened to beat them or snatch away their kanga (cloth
more money than they had agreed previously."
tied like a skirt). They said that they agreed to have sex to
(Young woman: PO-00-I-4-4f )
avoid such embarrassment.
Men were said sometimes to bully women into agreeing
Festivals
to sex by fabricating stories about prior gifts. One female
The Christian holidays and national festival days were
informant reported:
important in the villages and eagerly awaited, villagers
"He gives her, like, Tsh 20 for sugar cane, then he
saving up money and gifts for these occasions. Much
wants to beat her if she refuses [sex]. If asked by peo-
greater license than normal was given to young people,
ple why he wants to beat her, he says she ate [took] his
and young women with strict parents had a rare opportu-
money worth Tsh 2,000". (13 yr old Sukuma school-
nity to hang about in the evening and talk to friends.
girl, Std 5: PO-99-C-5-2f )
Young women were very concerned that their clothes
Young women sometimes agreed to sex in such cases to
should be as smart and new as possible on these celebra-
avoid embarrassment and protracted disputes.
tion days. They often used their savings to this end, or if
A common trick was for a man to use an intermediary
necessary borrowed from their friends or boyfriends. For
to get a young woman to accept a gift indirectly. For
instance as Christmas approached a 17 yr old schoolgirl
instance, a few food kiosk owners reported that men
(Std 5) 'was thinking of asking her boyfriend to give her
sometimes told them to serve food to a particular
Tsh 1,000 so that she can add to what she has and go to
woman, suggesting it was the kiosk owner's gift. The man
Geita [district capital] to buy shoes' (PO-99-I-1-2f ), or in
then paid the bill, putting him in a strong position to
July a young woman said:
negotiate having sex with the woman, since she was
"I was given money by my partner in order to buy
indebted to him. However, most women were aware of
socks for the choir at the Sabasaba inauguration".
such tricks:
(PO-00-I-4-4f )
"A man buys you tea or soda, he gives you money, he
On these days there was more sexual negotiation and
cunningly pleases you. He can cater for your costs
activity, and transactional sex was much more explicit,
first before propositioning you." (Young Sukuma
usually taking the form of " halleluya" exchanges, deriving woman, out of school: PO-99-C-8-2f )
from 'alleluia' meaning praise and thanks to God. If some-
Some girls and women described being deceived with
one greeted another person with the word " Halleluya"
false promises of future payment, though if this was
they expected to be given a gift or money. Most young
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women preferred to ask men for halleluya gifts because
that they were not getting good value for their money
they gave more, but the women knew that they were
with a condom:
likely to have to reciprocate by having sex, since most
"Most men who give money to their lovers don't agree
quickly spent the money or consumed the food or drinks
to use condoms. When it happens that a woman
given. Men generally demanded to have their gift back, or
insists on using a condom, they refuse and demand to
to have sex with the recipient, once they were s