converted him as wel.
By the Treaty of Wedmore, 878, the Danes bound themselves to remain north and east of a line drawn from
London to Chester, folowing the old Roman road caled Watling Street. Al south of this line, including a district
around London, was recognized as the dominions of Alfred, whose chief city, or capital, was Winchester. (See
map facing p. 32.)
By this treaty the Danes got much the larger part of England (caled the Danelaw), but they acknowledged Alfred
as their Overlord. He thus became, in name at least, what his predecessor, Egbert (S49), had claimed to be,—
supreme ruler of the whole country, though the highest title he ever assumed was "King of the Saxons or English."
57. Alfred's Laws; his Translations.
Alfred proved himself to be more than mere ruler, for he was also a lawgiver and teacher as wel. Through his
efforts a written code was compiled, prefaced by the Ten Commandments and ending with the Golden Rule.
Referring to this introduction, Alfred said, "He who keeps this shal not need any other law book."
Next, that learning might not utterly perish in the ashes of the abbeys and monasteries which the Danes had
destroyed (S53), the King, though feeble and suffering, set himself to translate from the Lating the "Universal
History of Orosius," and also Bede's valuable "Church History of England."
58. Alfred's Navy.
Alfred, however, stil had to fight against fresh invasion by the Danes, who continued to make descents upon the
coast, and even sailed up the Thames to take London. The English King constructed a superior class of fast-
sailing war vessels from designs made by himself. With this fleet, which may be regarded as the beginning of the
English navy, he fought the enemy on their own element. He thus effectualy checked a series of invasions which,
if they had continued, might have reduced the country to barbarism.
59. Estimate of Alfred's Reign.
Considered as a whole, Alfred's reign (871-901) is hte most noteworthy of any in the annals of the early English
sovereigns. It was marked throughout by inteligence and progress.
His life speaks for itself. The best commentary on it is the fact that, in 1849, the people of Wantage, his native
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permanent."[1]
[1] R. W. Emerson's "Poems."
60. St. Dunstan's Three Great Reforms (960-988).
Long after Alfred's death, St. Dunstan, then Archbishop of Canterbury and head of the English Church, set out
to push forward the work begun by the great King. He labored to accomplish three things. First, he sought to
establish a higher system of education; secondly, he desired to elevate the general standard of monastic life;
finaly, he tried to inaugurate a period of national peace and economic progress.
He began his work when he had control of the abbey of Glastonbury, in the southwest of England. He
succeeded in making the school connected with that abbey the most famous one in the whole kingdom (S45). He
not only taught himself, but, by his enthusiasm, he inspired others to teach. He was determined that from
Glastonbury a spirit should go forth which should make the Church of England the real educator of the English
people. Next, he devoted himself to helping the inmates of the monasteries in their efforts to reach a truer and
stronger manhood. That, of course, was the original purpose for which those institutions had been founded
(S45), but, in time, many of them had more or less degenerated. Every athlete and every earnest student knows
how hard it is to keep up the course of training he has resolved upon. The strain sometimes becomes too great
for him. Wel, the monk in his cel had found out how difficult it was for him to be always faithful to his religious
vows. St. Dunstan roused these men to begin their work anew. He re-created monasticism in England, making it
stricter in discipline and purer in purpose.
Last of al, the Archbishop endeavored to secure greater freedom from strife. He saw that the continued wars of
the English were kiling off their young men—the real hope of the country—and were wasting the best powers of
the nation. His influence with the reigning monarch was very great, and he was successful, for a time, in
reconciling the Danes and the English (SS53, 56). It was said that he established "peace in the kingdom such as
had not been known within the memory of man." At the same time the Archbishop, who was himself a skilful
mechanic and worker in metals,[1] endeavored to encourage inventive industry and the exportation of products
to the Continent. He did everything in his power to extend foreign trade, and it was largely through his efforts that
"London rose to the commercial greatness it has held ever since."[2] Because of these things, one of the best known English historians,[3] speaking of that period, declares that Dunstan "stands forth as the leading man in
both Church and State."
[1] The common people regarded his accomplishments in this direction with superstitious awe. Many stories of
his skil were circulated, and it was even whispered that in a personal contest with the Evil One, it was the foul
fiend and not the monk who got the worst of it, and fled from the saint's workshop, howling with dismay. [2] R.
Green's "English People." [3] E. A. Freeman's "Norman Conquest," I, 65.
61. New Invasions; Danegeld (992).
With the close of Dunstan's career, a period of decline set in. The Northmen began to make fresh inroads (S53).
The resistance to them became feeble and faint-hearted. At last a royal tax, caled Danegeld, or Dane money
(992), was levied on al landed property in England in order to buy off the invaders. For a brief period this
cowardly concession answered its purpose. But a time came when the Danes refused to be bribed to keep
away.
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62. The Northmen invade France.
The Danish invasion of England was realy a part of a great European movement. The same Northmen who had
obtained so large a part of the island (S56) had, in the tenth century, established themselves in France.
There they were known as Normans, a softened form of the word "Northmen," and the district where they
settled came to be caled from them Normandy. They founded a line of dukes, or princes, who were destined, in
the course of the next century, to give a new aspect to the events of English history.
63. Sweyn conquers England; Canute[1] (1017-1035).
Early in the eleventh century Sweyn, the Dane, conquered England (1013), and "al the people," says the "Anglo-Saxon Chronicle" (S99), "held him for ful king." He was succeeded by his son Canute (1017). He could hardly be caled a foreigner, since he spoke a language and set up a government differing but little from that of the
English.
[1] "Cnut," a shortened form of Canute.
After his first harsh measures were over he sought the friendship of both Church and people. He gave the
country peace. Tradition reports that he rebuked the flattery of courtiers by showing them that the inroling tide is
no respecter of persons; he endeavored to rule justly, and his liking for the monks found expression in his song:
"Merrily sang the monks of Ely
As Cnut the King was passing by."
64. Canute's Plan; the Four Earldoms.
Canute's plan was to establish a great northern empire embracing Denmark, Norway, Sweden, and England. To
facilitate the government of so large a realm, he divided England into four districts,—Wessex, Mercia, East
Anglia, and Northumbria—which, with their dependencies, embraced the entire country. (See map facing p. 38.)
Each of these districts was ruled by an earl[1] invested with almost royal power. For a time the arrangement
worked wel, but eventualy discord sprang up and imperiled the unity of the kingdom. After Canute's death two
of his sons divided England between themselves; both were bad rulers.
[1] Earl ("chief" or "leader"): a title of honor and of office. The four earldoms established by Canute remained nearly unchanged until the Norman Conquest, 1066.
65. Restoration of the Saxon or English Kings; Edward the Confessor (1042-1066).
On the occasion of the Danish conqueror Sweyn (S63), Ethelred II, the English King, sent his French wife Emma
back to Normandy for safety. She took her son, Prince Edward, then a lad of nine, with her. He remained at the
French court nearly thirty years, and among other friends to whom he became greatly attached was his second
cousin, Wiliam, Duke of Normandy.
The oppressive acts of Canute's sons (S64) excited insurrection (1042), and both Danes and English joined in
the determination to restore the English line. They invited Prince Edward to accept the crown. He returned to
England, obtained the throne, and pledged himself to restore the rights of which the people had been deprived.
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By birth King Edward was already half Norman; by education and tastes he was wholy so.
It is very doubtful whether he could speak a word of English, and it is certain that from the beginning he
surrounded himself with French favorites, and filed the Church with French priests. Edward's piety and
blameless life gained for him the title of "the Confessor," or, as we should say to-day, "the Christian."
He married the daughter of Godwin, Earl of Wessex, the most powerful noble in England. Godwin realy ruled
the country in the King's name until his death (1053), when his son Harold (S67) succeeded him as earl.
66. Edward the Confessor builds Westminster Abbey.
During a large part of his reign the King was engaged in building an abbey or monastery at the west end of
London, and hence caled the Westminster.[2] He had just completed and consecrated this great work when he
died, and was buried there. We may stil see a part of the original building in the crypt or basement of the abbey,
while the King's tomb above is the center of a circle of royal graves.
[2] Minster: a name given originaly to a monastery; next, to a church connected with a monastery; but now
applied to several large English cathedrals.
Multitudes made pilgrimages to King Edward's tomb, for the Pope had enroled him among the saints. Even now
a little band of devoted Catholics gather around his shrine every year. They go there to show their veneration for
the virtues and the piety of a ruler who would have adorned a monastery, but had not breadth and vigor to fil a
throne.
67. Harold becomes King (1066).
On his deathbed, King Edward, who had no children, recommended Harold, Earl of Wessex, as his successor
(S65). But the Normans in France declared Edward had promised that his cousin Wiliam, Duke of Normandy
(S65), should reign after him. The Witan, or National Council of England (S81), chose Harold. That settled the
question, for the Council alone had the right to decide who should rule over the English people. Harold was soon
afterward crowned (January 16, 1066).
68. Duke Wiliam prepares to invade England (1066).
Wiliam, Duke of Normandy, was getting ready for a hunting expedition when the news was brought to him of
Harold's accession (S67). The old chronicler says that the Duke "stopped short in his preparations; he spoke to
no man, and no man dared speak to him." Finaly he resolved to appeal to the sword and take the English crown
by force.
During the spring and summer of that year, he occupied himself in fitting out a fleet to invade England, and his
smiths and armorers were busy making lances, swords, and coats of mail. The Pope favored the expedition and
presented a banner blessed by himself, to be carried in the attack; "mothers, too, sent their sons for the salvation of their souls."
69. The Expedition Sails (1066).
Wiliam sailed on his great expedition in the autumn with a fleet of several hundred vesseles and a large number of
transports. The Duke's ship, with the consecrated banner at the masthead, led the fleet.
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His army consisted of archers and cavalry. Its strength has been variously estimated at from 14,000 men up to
60,000. They were partly his own subjects, and partly hired soldiers, or those who joined for the sake of
plunder. Wiliam also carried a large force of smiths and carpenters, with timber ready cut and fitted to set up a
wooden castle.
70. Wiliam lands at Pevensey.
The next day the fleet anchored at Pevensey, on the south coast of England, under the wals of an old Roman
fortress which had stood, a vacant ruin, since the Saxons stormed it nearly six hundred years before. (See map
facing p. 38.) Tradition says that as Wiliam stepped on shore he stumbled and fel flat with his face downward.
"God preserve us!" cried one of his men; "this is a bad sign." But the Duke, grasping the pebbles of the beach with both his outstretched hands, exclaimed, "Thus do I seize the land!"
71. King Harold in the North.
There was, in fact, no power to prevent him from establishing his camp, for King Harold (S67) was in the north
queling an invasion headed by the King of the Norwegians and his brother Tostig, who hoped to secure the
throne for himself. Harold had just sat down to a victory feast, after the battle of Stamford Bridge, Yorkshire,
when news was brought to him of the landing of Wiliam.
It was this fatal want of unity in England which made the Norman Conquest possible. If Harold's own brother,
Tostig, had not turned traitorously against him, or if the north country had stood squarely by the south, Duke
Wiliam might have found his fal on the beach an omen ful of disaster.
72. What Duke Wiliam did after Landing.
As there was no one to oppose him, Wiliam made a fort in a corner of the old Roman wal at Pevensey (S70),
and then marched to Hastings, a few miles farther east, where he set up a wooden castle on that hil where the
ruins of a later stone castle may stil be seen. Having done this, he pilaged the country in every direction.
73. Harold marches to meet Wiliam.
King Harold, having gathered what forced he could, marched to meet Wiliam at a place midway between
Pevensey and Hastings, about five miles back from the coast. Harold had the advantage of a stockaded fort he
had built; Wiliam, that of a body of cavalry and archers, for the English fought on foot with javelins and battle-
axes mainly. The Saxons spent the night in feasting and song, the Normans in prayer and confession; both were
eager to fight.
74. The Great Battle of Hastings, 1066.
On the morning of the 14th of October the fight began. It lasted until dark, with heavy loss on both sides. At
length Wiliam's strategy carried the day, and Harold and his brave folowers found to their cost that then, as
now, it is "the thinking bayonet" which conquers. The English King was slain and every man of his chosen troops with him. A monk who wrote the history of the period of the Conquest, says that "the vices of the Saxons had
made them effeminate and womanish, wherefore it came to pass that, running against Duke Wiliam, they lost
themselves and their country with one, and that an easy and light, battle." Doubtless the English had falen off in many ways from what hey had been generations earlier; but the record at Hastings shows that they had lost
neither strength, courage, nor endurance, and a harder battle ws never fought on British soil.
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75. Battle Abbey; Harold's Grave; the Beyeu^x Tapestry.
A few years later, the Norman Conqueror built the Abbey of Battle on the spot to commemorate the victory by
which he gained his crown. He directed that the monks of the abbey should chant perpetual prayers over the
Norman soldiers who had falen there. Here, also, tradition represents him as having buried Harold's body, just
after the fight, under a heap of stones by the seashore. Some months later, it is said that the friends of the English King removed the remains to Waltham, near London, and buried them in the church which he had built and
endowed there. Be that as it may, his grave, wherever it is, is the grave of the old England. Henceforth a new
people (though not a new race, for the Normans originaly came from the same Germanic stock as the English
did) (S62) wil appear in the history of the island.
Several contemporary accounts of the battle exist by both French and English writers, but one of the best
histories of it is that which was wrought in colors by a woman's hand. It represents the scenes of the famous
contest on a strip of canvas known as the Bayeux Tapestry (S155), a name derived from the French town where
it is stil preserved.
76. Close of the Period; what the Saxon Conquest of Britain had accomplished.
The death of King Harold ends the Saxon or English period of history. Before entering upon the reign of Wiliam
the Conqueror let us consider what that period had accomplished. We have seen that the Jutes, Saxons, and
Angles (SS36, 37) invaded Britain at a critical period. Its original inhabitants had become cowed and enervated
by the despotism and the worn-out civilization forced on them by the Romans (SS30-32).
The newcomers brought that healthy spirit of barbarism, that irrepressible love of personal liberty, which the
country sorely needed. The conquerors were rough, ignorant, cruel; but they were vigorous, fearless, and
determined.
These qualities were worth a thousand times more to Britain than the gilded corruption of Rome. But in the
course of time the Saxons or English themselves lost spirit (S36). Their besetting sin was a stolidity which
degenerated into animalism and sluggish content.
77. Fresh Elements contributed by the Danes or Northmen.
Then came the Danes or Northmen (SS52, 63). They brought with them a new spirit of stil more savage
independence which found expression in their song, "I trust my sword, I trust my steed, but most I trust myself at need."
They conquered a large part of the island, and in conquering regenerated it. So strong was their love of
independence, that even the lowest classes of farm laborers were quite generaly free.
More smal independent landholders were found amongh the Danish population than anywhere else; and it is said
that the number now existing in the region which they settled in the northeast of England is stil much larger than in
the south. (See map facing p. 32.) Finaly, the Danes and the English, both of whome sprang from the North
Germanic tribes (S36), mingled and becames in al respects one people.
78. Summary: What the Anglo-Saxons accomplished.
Thus Jutes, Saxons, Angles, and Danes, whom together we may cal the Anglo-Saxons,[1] laid the corner stone
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of the English nation. However much that nation has changed since, it remains, nevertheless, in its solid and
fundamental qualities, what those peoples made it.
[1] Anglo-Saxons: Some authorities insist that this phrase means the Saxons of England in distinction from those
of the Continent. It is used here, however, in the sense given by Professor Freeman, as a term describing the
people formed in England by the union of the Germanic tribes which had settled in the island.
They gave first the language, simple strong, direct, and plain—the familiar, everyday speech of the fireside and
the street, the wel-known words of both the newspaper and the Bible.
Next they established the government in its main outlines as it stil exists; that is, a king, a legislative body
representing the people, and a judicial system embodying the germ, at least, of trial by jury (S89).
Last, and best, they furnished conservative patience, persistent effort, indomitable tenacity of purpose, and cool,
determined courage. These qualities have won glorious victories on both sides of the Atlantic, not only in the
conflicts of war, but in the contests of peace, and who can doubt that they are destined to win stil greater ones in
the future?
GENERAL REFERENCE SUMMARY OF THE SAXON, OR EARLY ENGLISH, PERIOD (449-1066)
This section contains a summary of much of the preceding period, with considerable additional matter. It is
believed that teachers and pupils may find it useful for reference on certain topics (e.g. feudalism, etc.) which
could not be conveniently treated in detail in the history proper.
I. Government. II. Religion. III. Military Affairs. IV. Literature,
Learning, and Art. V. General Industry and Commerce. VI. Mode of
Life, Manners, and Customs
I. Government
79. Beginning of the English Monarchy.
During the greater part of the first four centuries after the Saxon conquest Britain was divided into a number of
tribal settlements, or petty kingdoms, held by Jutes, Angles, and Saxons, constantly at war with each other. In
the ninth century, the West Saxons, or inhabitants of Wessex, succeeded, under the leadership of Egbert, in
practicaly conquering and uniting the country. Egbert now assumed the title of Overlord or Supreme Ruler of the
English people. In time Britain came to be known, from the name of its largest tribe, the Angles, as Angle-Land,
or England. Meanwhile the Danes had obtained possession of a large part of the country on the northeast, but
they eventualy united with the English and became one people.
80. The King and the Witan.
The government of England was vested in an elective sovereign, assisted by the National Council of the Witan,
or Wise Men. It is an open question where every freeman had the right to attend this national council,[1], but, in
practice, the right became confined to a smal number of the nobles and clergy.
[1] Professor Stubbs and Freeman take opposite views on this point.
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81. What the Witan could do.
1. The Witan elected the King (its choice being confined, as a rule, to the royal family). 2. In case of
misgovernment, it deposed him. 3. It made or confirmed grants of public lands. 4. It acted as a supreme court of
justice both in civil and criminal cases. (See the Constitutional Summary in the Appendix, p. i, S3.)
82. What the King and Witan could do.
1. They enacted the laws, both civil and ecclesiastical. (In most cases this meant nothing more than stating what
the custom was, the common law being merely the common custom.) 2. They levied taxes. 3. They declared war
and made peace. 4. They appointed the chief officers and bishops of the realm.
83. Land Tenure before the Conquest.
Before they invaded Britain the Saxons and kindred tribes appear to have held their lands in common. Each head
of a family had a permanent homestead, but that was al.[1] "No one," says Caesar, "has a fixed quantity of land or boundaries to his property. The magistrates and chiefs assign every year to the families and communities who
live together, as much land and in such spots as they think suitable. The folowing year they require them to take
up another alotment.
[1] Tacitus ("Germania") says that each house "was surrounded by a space of its own."
"The chief glory of the tribes is to have their territory surrounded with as wide a belt as possible of waste land.
They deem it not only a special mark of valor that every neighboring tribe should be driven to a distance, and that
no stranger should dare to reside in their vicinity, but at the same time they regard it as a precautionary measure
against sudden attacks."[2]
[2] Caesar, "Galic War," Book VI.
84. Folkland.
Each tribe, in forming its settlement, seized more land than it actualy needed. This excess was known as
Folkland (the People's land,[3] and might be used by al alike for pasturing cattle or cutting wood. With the
consent of the Witan, the King might grant portions of this Folkland as a reward for services done to himself or
to the community. Such grants were usualy conditional and could only be made for a time. Eventualy they
returned to the community.
Other grants, however, might be made in the same way, which conferred ful ownership. Such grants were caled
Bocland (Book land), because conveyed by writing, or registered in a charter or book. In time the King obtained
the power of making these grants without having to consult the Witan, and at last the whole of the Folkland came
to be regarded as the absolute property of the Crown.
85. Duties of Freemen.
Every freeman was obliged to do three things: 1. He must assist in the maintenance of roads and bridges. 2. He
must aid in the repair of forts. 3. He must serve in case of war. Whoever neglected or refused to perform this last
and most important of al duties was dclard to be a "nithing," or infamous coward.[4]
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[4] Also written Niding. The English, as a rule, were more afraid of this name than of death itself.
86. The Feudal System (see, too, the Constitutional Summary in the Appendix, p. ii, S5).
The essential principle of the feudal system was the holding of land on condition of military or other service. It
appears to have gradualy grown up in England from grants made by