Geometric Methods in Structural Computational Biology by Lydia Kavraki - HTML preview

PLEASE NOTE: This is an HTML preview only and some elements such as links or page numbers may be incorrect.
Download the book in PDF, ePub, Kindle for a complete version.

index-1_1.jpg

Geometric Methods in Structural Computational

Biology

By: Lydia Kavraki

Online: < http://cnx.org/content/col10344/1.6>

This selection and arrangement of content as a collection is copyrighted by Lydia Kavraki.

It is licensed under the Creative Commons Attribution License: http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/2.0/

Collection structure revised: 2007/06/11

For copyright and attribution information for the modules contained in this collection, see the " Attributions" section at the end of the collection.

Geometric Methods in Structural Computational

Biology

Table of Contents

Structural Computational Biology: Introduction and Background

1.

Proteins and Their Significance to Biology and Medicine

Protein Structure

Experimental Methods for Protein Structure Determination

X-ray Crystallography

NMR

Electron Diffraction

Structure Prediction of Large Complexes

Protein Structure Repositories

Visualizing Protein Structures

Visualizing HLA-AW with VMD

Visualizing HLA-AW with Protein Explorer

Representing Proteins in Silico and Protein Forward Kinematics

1.

Modeling Proteins on a Computer

Cartesian Representation of Protein Conformations

The Internal Degrees of Freedom of a Protein

Bonds and Bond Length

Bond Angles

Dihedral Angles

Dihedral Representation of Protein Conformations

Protein Forward Kinematics

Mathematical Background: Matrices and Transformations

Forward Kinematics

A Simple Approach

Denavit-Hartenberg Local Frames

References

Protein Inverse Kinematics and the Loop Closure Problem

1.

Background Material

Inverse Kinematics and its Relevance to Proteins

Solving Inverse Kinematics

Inverse Kinematics Methods

Classic Inverse Kinematics Methods

Inverse Kinematics Methods with Optimization

Cyclic Coordinate Descent and Its Application to Proteins

References

Molecular Shapes and Surfaces

1.

Introduction

Representing Shape

Alpha-Shapes

Computing the Alpha-Shape: Delaunay Triangulation

Weighted Alpha Shapes

Calculating Molecular Volume Using α-Shapes

Software

References

Molecular Distance Measures

1.

Comparing Molecular Conformations

RMSD and lRMSD

Optimal Alignment for lRMSD Using Rotation Matrices

Optimal Alignment for lRMSD Using Quaternions

Introduction to Quaternions

Quaternions and Three-Dimensional Rotations

Optimal Alignment with Quaternions

Intramolecular Distance and Related Measures

References

Protein Classification, Local Alignment, and Motifs

1.

Protein Classification

Protein Alignment

Protein Classification

Local Matching: Geometric Hashing, Pose Clustering and Match Augmentation

Motifs

Protein Function Prediction

Identification of Matches

Match Augmentation

Seed Matching

Augmentation

Filtering Matches

Designing Effective Motifs

References

Dimensionality Reduction Methods for Molecular Motion

1.

Introduction

Dimensionality Reduction

Principal Components Analysis

PCA of conformational data

Non-Linear Methods

Isometric Feature Mapping (Isomap)

References

Robotic Path Planning and Protein Modeling

1.

Proteins as Robotic Manipulators

Robotic Path Planning

Background

The Path Planning Problem

Sampling-Based Path Planning

Sampling Based Planners for Proteins

References

Motion Planning for Proteins: Biophysics and Applications

1.

Free Energy and Potential Functions

Free Energy

Potential Functions

Terms of energy functions

Bonds

Bond Angles

Torsions

Van der Waals Interactions and Steric Clash

Electrostatic Interactions

Other Classes of Interactions

Parameters

An Example: The CHARMM All-Atom Empirical Potential

Applications of Roadmap Methods

Kinetics of Protein Folding

A PRM-Based Approach

Stochastic Roadmap Simulations

Markovian State Models

Protein-Ligand Docking Pathways and Kinetics

References

Protein-Ligand Docking, Including Flexible Receptor-Flexible Ligand Docking

1.

Background and Motivation

Components of a Docking Program

Ligand placement algorithm

Scoring function

Explicit force field scoring function

Empirical scoring functions

Knowledge-based scoring functions

Rigid Receptor Docking

Parameterization of the Problem

Examples of rigid-receptor docking programs

Autodock 3.0

Search technique

Scoring function

FlexX

Search technique

Scoring function

DOCK

Search technique

Scoring function

Links

Flexible Receptor Docking

Introduction

Flexibility Representations

Soft Receptors

Selection of Specific Degrees of Freedom

Multiple Receptor Structures

Molecular Simulations

Collective Degrees of Freedom

References

Chapter 1. Homework assignments

1.1. Assignment 1: Visualization and Ranking of Protein Conformations

Protein Data Bank

Visualizing Protein Conformations

A. Visualizing a Set of Conformations

B. Molecules in Motion

Ranking Conformations

Visualizing Protein Substructures

Structurally Classifying Proteins

For Submission

Appendix: Installing VMD

1.2. Assignment 2: Performing Rotations

"Defining the Connnectivity of a Backbone Chain"

Dihedral Rotations

Setup with Matlab

Ranking by Energy

For Submission

1.3. Assignment 3: Inverse Kinematics

Motivation for Inverse Kinematics in Proteins

Inverse Kinematics for a Polypeptide Chain

Setup with Matlab

For Submission

References

Index

Structural Computational Biology: Introduction and

Background

Topics in this Module

Proteins and Their Significance to Biology and Medicine

Protein Structure

Experimental Methods for Protein Structure Determination

Protein Structure Repositories

Visualizing Protein Structures

Proteins and Their Significance to Biology and Medicine

Proteins are the molecular workhorses of all known biological systems. Among other functions,

they are the motors that cause muscle contraction, the catalysts that drive life-sustaining chemical

processes, and the molecules that hold cells together to form tissues and organs.

The following is a list of a few of the diverse biological processes mediated by proteins:

Proteins called enzymes catalyse vital reactions, such as those involved in metabolism, cellular

reproduction, and gene expression.

Regulatory proteins control the location and timing of gene expression.

Cytokines, hormones, and other signalling proteins transmit information between cells.

Immune system proteins recognize and tag foreign material for attack and removal.

Structural proteins prevent cells from collapsing on themselves, as well as forming large

structures such as hair, nails, and the protective, largely impermeable outer layer of skin. They

also provide a framework along which molecules can be transported within cells.

The estimate of the number of genes in the human genome has been changing dramatically since it

was annotated (the latest gene count estimates can be found in this Wikipedia article on the

human genome). Each gene encodes one or more distinct proteins. The total number of distinct proteins in the human body is larger than the number of genes due to alternate splicing. Of those, only a small fraction have been isolated and studied to the point that their purpose and mechanism

index-9_1.jpg

index-9_2.jpg

of activity is well understood. If the functions and relationships between every protein were fully

understood, we would most likely have a much better understanding of how our bodies work and

what goes wrong in diseases such as cancer, amyotrophic lateral sclerosis, Parkinson's, heart

disease and many others. As a result, protein science is a very active field. As the field has

progressed, computer-aided modeling and simulation of proteins have found their place among the

methods available to researchers.

Protein Structure

An amino acid is a simple organic molecule consisting of a basic (hydrogen-accepting), amine

group bound to an acidic (hydrogen-donating) carboxyl group via a single intermediate carbon

atom:

Figure 1. An α-amino acid

A generic α-amino acid. The "R" group is variable, and is the only difference between the 20 common amino acids. This form is called a zwitterion, because it has both positive and negatively charged atoms. The zwitterionic state results from the amine group (NH2) gaining a hydrogen atom from solution, and the acidic group (COO) losing one.

During the translation of a gene into a protein, the protein is formed by the sequential joining of

amino acids end-to-end to form a long chain-like molecule, or polymer. A polymer of amino

acids is often referred to as a polypeptide. The genome is capable of coding for 20 different

amino acids whose chemical properties depend on the composition of their side chains ("R" in the

above figure). Thus, to a first approximation, a protein is nothing more than a sequence of these

amino acids (or, more properly, amino acid residues, because both the amine and acid groups lose

their acid/base properties when they are part of a polypeptide). This sequence is called the

primary structure of the protein.

Figure 2. A polypeptide

A generic polypeptide chain. The bonds shown in yellow, which connect separate amino acid residues, are called peptide bonds.

index-10_1.jpg

index-10_2.jpg

index-10_3.jpg

index-10_4.jpg

The Wikipedia entry on amino acids provides a more detailed background, including the structure, properties, abbreviations, and genetic codes for each of the 20 common amino acids.

The primary structure of a protein is easily obtainable from its corresponding gene sequence, as

well as by experimental manipulation. Unfortunately, the primary structure is only indirectly

related to the protein's function. In order to work properly, a protein must fold to form a specific

three-dimensional shape, called its native structure or native conformation. The three-

dimensional structure of a protein is usually understood in a hierarchical manner. Secondary

structure refers to folding in a small part of the protein that forms a characteristic shape. The

most common secondary structure elements are α-helices and β-sheets, one or both of which are

present in almost all natural proteins.

Figure 3. Secondary Structure: α-helix

α-helices, rendered three different ways. Left is a typical cartoon rendering, in which the helix is depicted as a cylinder. Center shows a trace of the backbone of the protein. Right shows a space-filling model of the helix, and is the only rendering that shows all atoms (including those on side chains).

<db:title> Bond representation

<db:title> Cartoon

</db:title>

<db:title> Ribbon

representation </db:title>

representation </db:title>

(c) Each segment in this representation

represents a bond. Unlike the other two

(a) Different parts of the polypeptide

(b) β-sheets are sometimes referred to as β

representations, side chains are illustrated.

strand align with each other to form a β- pleated sheets, because of the regular zig- Note the alignment of oxygen atoms (red) sheet. This β-sheet is anti-parallel,

zag of the strands evident in this

toward nitrogen atoms (blue) on adjacent

because adjacent segments of the protein representation.

strands. This alignment is due to hydrogen

run in opposite directions.

bonding, the primary interaction involved in

stabilizing secondary structure.

Figure 4. Secondary Structure: β-sheet

Beta-sheets represented in three different rendering modes: cartoon, ribbon, and bond representations.

Tertiary structure refers to structural elements formed by bringing more distant parts of a chain

together into structural domains. The spatial arrangement of these domains with respect to each

other is also considered part of the tertiary structure. Finally, many proteins consist of more than

one polypeptide folded together, and the spatial relationship between these separate polypeptide

chains is called the quaternary structure. It is important to note that the native conformation of a

protein is a direct consequence of its primary sequence and its chemical environment, which for

most proteins is either aqueous solution with a biological pH (roughly neutral) or the oily interior

of a cell membrane. Nevertheless, no reliable computational method exists to predict the native

structure from the amino acid sequence, and this is a topic of ongoing research. Thus, in order to

find the native structure of a protein, experimental techniques are deployed. The most common

approaches are outlined in the next section.

Experimental Methods for Protein Structure Determination

A structure of a protein is a three-dimensional arrangement of the atoms such that the integrity of

the molecule (its connectivity) is maintained. The goal of a protein structure determination

experiment is to find a set of three-dimensional (x, y, z) coordinates for each atom of the molecule

in some natural state. Of particular interest is the native structure, that is, the structure assumed by

the protein under its biological conditions, as well as structures assumed by the protein when in

the process of interacting with other molecules. Brief sketches of the major structure

determination methods follow:

X-ray Crystallography

The most commonly used and usually highest-resolution method of structure determination is x-

ray crystallography. To obtain structures by this method, laboratory biochemists obtain a very

pure, crystalline sample of a protein. X-rays are then passed through the sample, in which they are

diffracted by the electrons of each atom of the protein. The diffraction pattern is recorded, and can

be used to reconstruct the three-dimensional pattern of electron density, and therefore, within

some error, the location of each atom. A high-resolution crystal structure has a resolution on the

order of 1 to 2 Angstroms (Å). One Angstrom is the diameter of a hydrogen atom (10^-10 meter,

or one hundred-millionth of a centimeter).

Unlike other structure determination methods, with x-ray crystallography, there is no fundamental

limit on the size of the molecule or complex to be studied. However, in order for the method to

work, a pure, crystalline sample of the protein must be obtained. For many proteins, including

many membrane-bound receptors, this is not possible. In addition, a single x-ray diffraction

experiment provides only static information - that is, it provides only information about the native

structure of the protein under the particular experimental conditions used. As we will see later,

proteins are often flexible, dynamic objects when in their natural state in solution, so a single

structure, while useful, may not tell the full story. More information on X-ray Crystallography is

available at Crystallography 101 and in the Wikipedia.

NMR

Nuclear Magnetic Resonance (NMR) spectroscopy has recently come into its own as a protein

structure determination method. In an NMR experiment, a very strong magnetic field is

transiently applied to a sample of the protein being studied, forcing any magnetic atomic nuclei

into alignment. The signal given off by a nucleus as it returns to an unaligned state is

characteristic of its chemical environment. Information about the atoms within two chemical

bonds of the resonating nucleus can be deduced, and, more importantly, information about which

atoms are spatially near each other can also be found. The latter information leads to a large

system of distance constraints between the atoms of the protein, which can then be solved to find a

three-dimensional structure. Resolution of NMR structures is variable and depends strongly on the

flexibility of the protein. Because NMR is performed on proteins in solution, they are free to

undergo spatial rearrangements, so for flexible parts of the protein, there may be many more than

one detectable structures. In fact, NMR structures are generally reported as ensembles of 20-50

distinct structures. This makes NMR the only structure determination technique suited to

elucidating the behavior of intrinsically unstructured proteins, that is, proteins that lack a well-

defined tertiary structure. The reported ensemble may also provide insight into the dynamics of

the protein, that is, the ways in which it tends to move.

NMR structure determination is generally limited to proteins smaller than 25-30 kilodaltons

(kDa), because the signals from different atoms start to overlap and become difficult to resolve in

that range. Additionally, the proteins must be soluble in concentrations of 0.2-0.5 mM without

aggregation or precipitation. For more information on how NMR is used to find molecular