The Buddha was least interested in metaphysical discourses or dogmas. He was concerned about ethical living, applicable to all sections of people - kings, princes, Brahmans, people of low caste, masters, servants, monks, ordinary people, etc. He taught about the nobility of a religion. The four Noble Truths are the essence of the Buddha’s teachings, which he explained in his first sermon to his old colleagues at Isipattana. These noble truths are explained in detail later, in other early Buddhist scriptures.
The First Noble Truth: Dukkha
The term Dukkha, usually translated as ‘suffering’, does not communicate the full implication of the word as used in the Buddhist scriptures. Because of the misleading and unsatisfactory translation of the term, many people consider Buddhism as pessimistic. But in fact, Buddhism objectively regards a world of reality (yathabhutam), and suggests ways and means to attain peace, happiness, and tranquility. The word dukkha has a deeper meaning like ‘imperfection’, ‘impermanence’, and ‘emptiness’, in addition to the ordinary meanings of suffering, pain, sorrow, misery, etc. Though the Buddha presented dukkha as one of the four noble truths, he did not negate happiness in life. He accepted both material and spiritual happiness. Three factors are important with regard to life and enjoyment of sense pleasures; they are attraction or attachment, dissatisfaction, and freedom or liberation. Desire is the cause of suffering; desire leads to the means for satisfaction; and satisfaction leads to pleasure or pain, and disappointment. The cycle of birth and death is a necessary outcome of desire. The concept of dukkha can be understood from three aspects:
The five aggregates are the following: a) The aggregates of matter (rupakkhandha) are the first aggregate. The four basic elements of the universe, their derivates, the sense organs and their corresponding objects in the external world are included in the aggregate matter. b) The second one is the aggregate of sensations (vedanakkhandha) and is six in number. The sensation we obtain through our senses and mind are included in this category. In Buddhism, unlike in other traditions, the mind is considered as a sense faculty or organ and not as spirit. c) The third one is aggregate of perceptions (sannakkhandha) and is six in number in relation to the six internal faculties. d) The fourth one is the aggregate of mental formations (sankharakkhandha) which include all volitional activities, both good and bad. e) The fifth is the aggregate of consciousness (vinnanakkhanda), based on the six internal faculties and their corresponding objects in the world. Consciousness is not spirit in Buddhist philosophy. These five aggregates together constitute the being; there is no other realist behind these aggregates to experience dukkha. Though the first noble truth is dukkha, statues of the Buddha always present a serene, calm, compassionate, and smiling face.
The Second Noble Truth, Samudaya: The Arising Of Dukkha
The oft repeated explanation of the second noble truth is: ‘It is ‘thirst’ which produces re- existence and re-becoming, and which is bound with passionate greed. It finds fresh delight, now here and now there, namely, 1. Thirst for sense-pleasures, 2. Thirst for existence and becoming and 3. Thirst for nonexistence. The ‘thirst’, desire, or craving manifested in different forms in human life give rise to suffering and continuity of life. But desire, though the immediate and all- pervading cause, cannot be considered as the first cause, because everything is relative and inter-dependent. ‘Thirst’ (tanha) depends on sensation, and sensation depends on contract for its origination; hence it is a circle that goes on and on, which is known as ‘dependent origination’ (paticcasammupaada). Most of the economic, political, social, and ethnic problems are rooted in the interest of a person or a group or a nation.
The Theory of Karma
Thirst as a cause for re-existence, and re- becoming is closely connected with the theory of Karma and rebirth. Four factors are involved in the existence and continuity of being. They are, i) ordinary material food, ii) contact of the sense organs with the external world, iii) consciousness, and iv) mental volition or will. Mental volition is karma; it is the root cause of existence. Mental volition (centan) is the desire to love, to re-exist, to continue, to become more and more. This comes under one of the five aggregates which are called mental formations. Both, the case of the arising of dukkha as well as the destruction of dukkha, are within us. Whatever has the nature of arising within dukkha has the nature of cessation within.
There is a basic difference between the kamma (Pali) and karma (Sanskrit) as generally understood in Buddhist tradition. The theory of karma in Buddhist philosophy means ‘volitional action’; it means neither the action nor the result of the action. Volitional acts can be good or bad. Thirst, volition, or karma produces either good or bad effects; the result of these actions is to continue in the good or bad direction within the cycle of continuity (samsara). The result of the action will continue to manifest in the life after death. But an Arhant is free from impurities and defilements, thus he/she has no rebirth.
Volition, thirst, or the desire to exist, to continue, to be reborn is a tremendous force in each living being. A human person is a combination of the five aggregates, which is a combination of physical and mental energies. These energies arise, decay, and die in a person each moment. These energies once produced will continue in a series, even after death. Buddhists do not believe in a permanent substance like a soul, which takes a new life after death. But the volitional actions give rise to energy which will give rise to another act, and so it goes on and on. As long as there is the ‘thirst’ to exist, the cycle of continuity (samsara) continues.
The Third Noble Truth: Nirodha, ‘The Cessation of Dukkha’
There is emancipation or liberation from suffering, which is known as the third noble truth (dukkhanirodha ariyasacca.) Liberation is popularly known as Nirvana (in Pali- Nibbana). Nirvana is the total ‘extinction of thirst’. How can we understand Nirvana? Nirvana is the absolute, supra-mundane experience; hence language is not sufficient to explain it. Like the neti, neti approach in Advaita Vedanta, Nirvana is also explained in negative terms like, Tanhakkhaya or extinction of thirst, Asamkhata or uncompounded or unconditioned, Viraga or absence of desire, Nirodha or cessation, Nibbana or blowing out or extinction.
The cessation of continuity and becoming is Nibbana. Extinction of the ‘thirst’ does not mean self-annihilation, because there is no self in Buddhism. Nibbana is the annihilation of the false idea of the self; it is the annihilation of ignorance (avijja). Nibbana is not a negative experience but is the ‘absolute truth’, which is beyond duality and relativity. Truth is that nothing is permanent; everything is dependent on the other. The realization of this is ‘to see things as they are’ (yathabhatam). Once the wisdom dawns, the continuity of samsara is broken and the mental formulations are no more capable of producing any more illusions. Nirvana can be attained during one’s life time itself, one need not die. Nirvana is the highest state of experience one can attain; it is ‘happiness without sensation’.
The Fourth Noble Truth: Magga - The Path
This is also known as the ‘middle path’ because it avoids the extremes - happiness through sense pleasures and happiness through severe asceticism. The entire teaching of Buddha can be summarized into the eight fold noble path. They are the following: a) right understanding, b) right attitude of mind, c) right speech, d) right action, e) right conduct, f) right effort, g) right attention, and h) right meditation. The eight divisions will help a person to grow in ethical conduct (sila), mental discipline (samadhi), and wisdom (panna). Ethical conduct consists of right speech, right action, and right livelihood. Similarly right effort, right mindfulness, and right concentration form mental discipline. Compassion (karuna) and wisdom are the two essential factors for a person to be perfect. Wisdom is the quality of the mind or intellect, while compassion is the quality of the heart. An integrated development of the two aspects will enable a person to understand things as they are. Understanding, in Buddhism, is of two kinds. They are, grasping a thing based on the given data, which is called ‘knowing accordingly’ (anubodha), and seeing a thing in its true nature, which is called penetration (patvedha). Everyone who follows these can be liberated from the bondage of matter and suffering.