Chapter one. HISTORY OF PSYCHOLOGY AS SELF-PROOF SCIENCE
The subject of the history of psychology is the study of the formation of the concept of mental reality at different stages of the development of scientific knowledge. The history of psychology has its own, different from the subject of psychology. In the development of the science of the history of psychology, three basic definitions of the subject were singled out: the soul, consciousness, behavior. Psychology as a science of the soul explained it as the cause of everything, that is, the soul was determined as an explanatory principle. Consciousness had a double function: it was an object of study, and an explanatory principle. With the appearance of a new subject of studies - behavior - the subjectivism of the psychology of consciousness was overcome, but this led to the disappearance of the object of study - the psyche and consciousnesses. At the present stage of the development of science, there is a close connection between consciousness and behavior or activity:
The main tasks of the history of psychology
1. Dialysis of the emergence and further development of scientific knowledge about the psyche from the point of view of a scientific, and not a religious or religious approach, and the study of the evolution of ideas about the human psyche.
2. Analysis and understanding of interdisciplinary links between the history of psychology and other sciences, the disclosure of the bodies of interrelations on which the achievements of psychology depend,
3. Explain the dependence of the origin and perception of knowledge on social, cultural and ideological influences on scientific creativity.
4. Studying the role of the individual, her individual path in the formation of science itself.
Driving forces and reasons for the historical development of psychological ideas:
1) the connection of science with the general socio-cultural new era;
2} the close interaction of science with the general conditions and laws of scientific knowledge;
3) communication with those objective requirements that are imposed on scientific cognition by the very nature of the phenomena being studied at a given stage of their investigation;
4) the general situation, historical conditions and temporal features of the period in which science develops;
5) the special situation in science as a whole during the period under study, the study of discoveries in other sciences, and the adoption of methodology.
2. METHODOLOGICAL FOUNDATIONS OF THE HISTORY OF PSYCHOLOGY. PRINCIPLES OF HISTORICAL-PSYCHOLOGICAL ANALYSIS
The principle of historicism is the examination of an opportune segment of the development of meuka in the context of sociocultural conditions, its dependence on the general situation in science in general and in the science under study in particular through comparison with the previous knowledge accumulated in the field under study.
The determinism is a natural and necessary dependence of psychic phenomena on the factors that generate them .
Methods of the History of Psychology
Theoretical reconstruction (a method borrowed from other sciences) - involves a description and a critical analysis of the scientific systems of the past, specific programs for obtaining, substantiating and systematizing psychological knowledge. The result of this research is a retrospective reproduction of scientific concepts, problems, research methods in their historical sequence in accordance with the logic of the subject.
The study of scientific schools is the study of the internal aspects and characteristics of a particular school, the ways of producing scientific knowledge, the nature of scientific communication between the representatives of the school itself, the similarities and differences in their opinions, evaluations, and criticism, developed and used by it.
The study of archival materials - the search for scientific papers and their commenting, the supply of footnotes and notes.
Interviewing - the interview of the researcher with a scientist, representative of a particular school in order to obtain materials in accordance with specific research tasks with the help of certain questions.
Biographical and autobiographical methods - recreating the atmosphere of the real life of the scientist-creator of the theory, the sources of his spiritual development, understanding the reasons for the creation of the theory.
ANALYSIS of scientific references is the establishment of the frequency of subsidizing scientific works in order to obtain information about the links between scientific directions, the current state of science and the trends in its development.
Sources of studying the history of psychology are materials in which the entire historical process of psychological knowledge, the work of scientists themselves, philosophers, psychologists, materials of other social sciences is collected.
3. REPRESENTATIONS OF PSYCHICS IN FIRST CONSCIOUSNESS AND ANTIQUITY
Primitive ideas about the psyche arose in primitive religions "and the beliefs of people, in mythology, in artistic folk art. The soul was seen as something unearthly, mysterious and unknowable. The soul determines the life and activity of the animal and man, and death or sleep is explained, respectively, by its permanent or temporary absence. In the primitive world there was a mythological understanding of life, where the bodies are inhabited by souls, and human life is governed by gods, who are endowed with certain styles of behavior: cunning, wisdom, vindictiveness and envy. With the transition to a higher stage of development of society, the understanding of oneself as part of the surrounding world created by the gods has come.
Antiquity marked a new stage in the history of mankind: the cultural flowering, the emergence of numerous philosophical schools, the emergence of outstanding researchers and the first attempts to bring philosophical, and often scientific, under the phenomena of the surrounding world, steps were taken to understand and describe the human psyche . The beginning of the science of psychology was posited precisely in antiquity, and the origins of the formation of this science were the great ancient Greek thinkers and philosophers: Plato, Aristotle, Hippocrates, Democritus.
Animism (from Latin - the soul) was one of the first mythological teachings about the soul in ancient philosophy and considered the human psyche from the point of view of mythology and the psychology of the gods. The soul was understood as a special sign that is not visible for specific everyday things and which leaves the human body with its last breath.
The transition from animism to hylozoism marked a revolution in ancient scientific thought. In the Hylozoism, the whole world, the cosmos was considered originally alive; the boundaries between the living, the inanimate and the psychic were not conducted-they were all regarded as the productions of a single living matter. Hylozoism ended animism and first subordinated the soul (psyche) to the general laws of nature.
4. PSYCHOLOGICAL IDEAS OF HERACLITES AND DEMOCRITES
Heraclitus (genus, apt 544 - died ok, 483 BC). 1. The idea of the soul: the soul ("psyche") is the "spark" of the cosmos, which was defined as> eternally the living Fire. Everything around a person and the person himself are subject to eternal change. The only thing for the soul and for the cosmos is the law, according to which there are no unaccountable phenomena and all of them are the inevitable result of the collision of atoms. Random people call those events, the causes of which do not know. 1. Theory of the knowledge of Heraclitus; the process of cognition means the withdrawal into the depths of one's own thoughts and experiences and a complete renunciation of everything external, but presupposes knowing the law of the Logos, according to which the phenomena pass to each other and the small world of the individual soul is identical with the whole of the whole world order; therefore, to comprehend one's soul means to go deeper into the law (Logos),
Democritus (born around 460 - died about 471 BC, eh,). 1. The concept of peace and soul: everything that exists consists of atoms - the smallest substances that are indivisible and not-accessible to the senses, and also differ in form, magnitude and mobility. The soul is a material substance consisting of the smallest round, smooth, very moving atoms of fire scattered throughout the body. The soul moves the body through the movement of small atoms of fire. After the dissolution of the body, the atoms of the soul come out of it, dissipate in space and disappear, ie, the soul is also mortal, like the body. 2 The doctrine of the psychic processes is based on the understanding of man as the compounds of certain atoms with each other. Perception is the interaction of atoms of objects that a person perceives, and his sense organs. Certain atoms, copies, "eidoles" emanate from the object, which in appearance are similar to the object itself. From the sense organs are directed counter streams of soul atoms, which capture images, or eidoles, from objects. An imprint is obtained, which is reflected in the moist part of the eye. Visions in a person arise as a result of entering images into it. Images can be perceived by any parts of the body, only in this case perception will be worse than through the senses.
5. PSYCHOLOGICAL IDEAS OF SOCRATES
Socrates was the most famous ancient Greek philosopher (469-399 BC). Plato and Aristotle are also famous for his scholars.
Teaching about knowledge. The process of cognition is based on cognition, not through the external, but through the internal, that is, the conversion not to the universal law (the Logos), but to the inner world of the subject, his convictions and values, his ability to act as a rational being. The goal of Socrates's philosophical teachings was to help people find "themselves." Socrates, seeking answers to questions about the nature of man, saw them not in relation to man to nature, but in the presence of an "inner voice", a conscience, which he called a daimonion and which was a guarantee of understanding the true truth.
The Socratic method. Socrates was a master of oral communication and analysis, whose goal - with the help of the word to reveal what is hidden behind the veil of consciousness. Picking certain questions, Socrates helped the interlocutor to open these covers. This type of dialogue was subsequently called the Socratic method. This method of conducting the conversation consists in firstly questioning the truth of their knowledge by means of special questions, and then reaching this truth by finding out the contradictions in the statements of the enemy, by colliding them and thus finding a new, more reliable knowledge.
The significance of Socrates's ideas for the further development of psychology as a science. Socrates in his method of dialogue denoted such ideas, which later played a major role in the psychological research of thinking. First, the work of thought was initially of a dialogue nature. Secondly, it was made dependent on tasks that create an obstacle in its habitual current. It was precisely these tasks that raised questions, forcing the interlocutor to turn to the work of his own mind. Both signs - dialogism, suggesting that knowledge is initially socially, and the determining tendency created by the task - became in the XX century. the basis of experimental psychology of thinking.
6. PSYCHOLOGICAL IDEAS OF PLATON.
The concept of the soul of Plato (427-347 BC) is not inextricably linked with the doctrine of ideas. There is a world of ideas, which is primary, true, unchangeable, eternal and does not depend on sensible things, and the world of things that is non-being, coming and mortal. Every thing has in its beginning an idea, and it is ideas that are samples, and things are their ways, imperfect weak copies. The soul acts as a link between the world of ideas and sensible things, although it is in its primitive state in the realm of ideas and exists before it unites with any body, therefore the nature of the soul is akin to the nature of ideas. The soul is above the body and therefore can rule over it. The soul is an immortal substance. It consists of 3 parts: a lusting soul, an intelligent soul that resists the lusting, and also a violent spirit. Violation of the harmony of parts of the soul leads to suffering, and its restoration to a sense of pleasure. The struggle of the parts of the soul is revealed in dreams.
Processes of cognition. Plato did not focus on external dialogue, as was the case with Socrates, but on the inner, presuming that the soul asks in the process of thinking itself, but answers, affirms and denies it. This phenomenon is known to modern psychology as internal speech, and the process of its origin from speech of the external (social) has received the name of interiorization (from Latin "interior" - internal). All knowledge is the remembrance of the souls of those ideas that she knew while she was in the world of ideas, before she was united with the body, that is, on the basis of associations; Thus, one must study one's own soul, and in it is true knowledge.
Sensual cognition is separated from the rational. Sensual cognition, reflecting the material world, gives a person only a secondary, inessential knowledge, as it reflects not the real world of ideas, but the seeming world of things. It gives an intermediate opinion between knowledge and ignorance and is the lowest kind of knowledge. Therefore, only that cognition that penetrates into the very essence, into the world of ideas, can be true.
7. PSYCHOLOGICAL IDEAS OF THE ARISTOTEL TRAKTAT "ABOUT THE SOUL".
Aristotle (384/383 - 322/321 BC) first systematized all knowledge about the nature of man from the history of the matter to the analysis of the opinions of predecessors and the construction on this basis of his theory. The main function of the soul is the realization of the biological existence of the organism, in which the body and spirit form an integral whole. The soul is not an independent entity, but a form, a way of organizing a living body. After death, the soul returns to the ether of space, that is, it has a divine beginning that comes into the body at the moment of birth. Abilities of the soul are considered through its levels.
1. The vegetative level is characteristic of plants and contains the ability to move in the sense of nutrition, growth and decline.
2. The sensual level prevails in the souls of animals, and its main abilities are feelings and sensations.
3. The reasonable (higher) level is inherent only in humans, the main are the ability to think.
The following cognitive abilities of the soul are distinguished.
1. Perception is the primary source of knowledge, it knows the individual, the particular, on the basis of which man knows the common.
2. Touch is the main sensation necessary for life.
3. Memory, which gives the preservation and reproduction of sensations and is divided into three types: the lowest, retaining sensations in the form of representations; the actual memory is the image in conjunction with the time characteristic; higher memory is the process of remembering by establishing any relationship between the present and the desired past, that is, through associations.
4. Imagination is the formation of a representation, which is the energy of the sensory organ without corresponding impact from outside,
5, Thinking as the formulation of judgments, flows in concepts and comprehends the general. There is a lower mind, which does not investigate and does not state this opinion or assumption; and higher thinking that knows the basics of things and can be reasoning (logical), intuitive, through which one can find premises, and thinking-wisdom, which is the highest kind of thinking.
8. THE PROBLEM OF AFFECTS IN ANTIQUE PSYCHOLOGY
The concept of emotions in Aristotle . Feelings co-conduct any activity and are its source. At the same time, feelings of pleasure and displeasure are an indicator of normal development or a delay in the development of mental and bodily functions. Affect is defined as a passive state caused in a person by some action and accompanied by bodily changes, while the affects themselves are neither evil nor virtue, but characterize only the manner of behavior. Typical affects are attraction, anger, fear, that is, everything that accompanies pleasure or suffering.
The concept of affects in the Stoics . The Stoic School appeared in the fourth century. BC. e. and got its name from the name of that place in Athens ("standing" - the portico of the temple), where its founder, Zeno (not confused with sophist Zenon), propoved his teaching.
Affects are understood as excessive unreasonable and unnatural movements of the human soul, associated with misconceptions about things. There are 26 kinds of affects. The main are the diversity of affects of pleasure and displeasure, which Stoics considered false judgments about the present, and human desires and fears defined by them as false judgments about the future. Only mind, free from any emotional turmoil, is able to properly guide behavior. The Stoics studied the process of the course of the affect, and they identified three stages of the increase in the affects:
1) the first stage involves the growth of physiological changes under the influence of external influences;
2) at the second stage there occurs an involuntary appearance of an opinion on the situation and the desired reaction;
3) the third stage is characterized by the intervention of the mind, which can lead both to avoiding the affect (with the correct value evaluation of what is happening), and to the falling into the affect itself, ie, it is the mind that is responsible for the occurrence of the affect.
Practical methods of dealing with affects include the ability not to give affect to external expression, nor to exaggerate their imagination and distract themselves from other kinds of memories.
9 . THEORY OF THE TEMPERAMENT IN ANTIQUE PSYCHOLOGY
Hippocrates (born around 460 - died about 377 BC) was a famous ancient Greek physician. The main reason for the differences between a healthy and a sick person Hippocrates considered the proportions in which there are various "juices" in the body (blood, bile, mucus); these proportions he called temperaments.They first theory of temperaments has been developed, containing the four types of temperament, the names of which have survived to the present day; sanguine, wherein the blood predominates; choleric, which is based on yellow bile; melancholic, dominated by black bile; and phlegmatic with a predominance of mucus. Theory temperaments Hippocrates has great historical significance because, firstly, numerous differences between people grouped in several general features of behavior and thereby laid beginning scientific typology underlying the modern teachings of individual differences between people, and, secondly, the source and cause of differences Hippocrates was looking inside the body, and not relied on divine providence, ie,, spiritual qualities was to depend on bodily.
Galen (II century. BC. E.), Roman physician, developed the doctrine of temperaments of Hippocrates. He identified 13 temperaments, of which only one recognized as normal. It is also claimed that the primary at the affects were changes in the body ( "boiling blood") and subjective emotional experiences (e.g., anger) secondary,
Galen conducted using experiments on cutting the nerve to describe the dependence of the whole organism vital functions of the nervous system. He found that the nerves coming from the senses, allow the presence of human cognitive processes such as sensation and perception; the nerves of the muscles that are responsible for voluntary movement, and the remaining nerves innervi-ruyut other (internal) organs. Galen particular importance attached to the spinal cord. In it he distinguished between sensory and motor nerves.
10. DIRECTIONS OF ANCIENT PSYCHOLOGY
In the writings of the ancient Greek thinkers, aimed at explaining the genesis and structure of the soul, we can find three main areas.
The first direction is explained psyche, based on the laws of motion and development of the material world, the idea of defining mental manifestations depending on the total order of things, their physical nature of the understanding of the arbitrariness of life of the soul from the physical world and their inner relationship.
The second trend established by Aristotle, is focused mainly on wildlife; the starting point for it served contrast properties of organic from inorganic bodies. Since the mind is a form of life, mainstreaming psychobiological problems was a major step forward. It is possible to see in the mental does not live in the body of the soul having the spatial parameters and capable (according to both materialists and idealists) to leave the body to which it is connected externally, as a way of organizing the behavior of living systems.
The third area of activity puts the soul of the individual depending on the form that are not created by nature and human culture, namely, concepts, ideas, and ethical values. These forms are really playing a huge role in the structure and dynamics of mental processes were, however, from the Pythagoreans and Plato, alienated from the material world, the real history of culture and society, and the pre-put in the form of special spiritual beings, sensible body.
Ancient scholars have problems for centuries guided the development of the human sciences. It was the first time they have tried to answer the questions of how to relate to the human body and spirit, thinking and communication, personal and social, cultural, motivational and intellectual, rational and irrational, and much more inherent in human nature. The ancient sages and testers raised to unprecedented heights culture hitherto theoretical thought that by converting the data of experience, frustrated covers with appearances common sense and religious and mythological images.
11. STAGES OF DEVELOPMENT OF PSYCHOLOGY IN THE PERIOD FROM ANTIQUITY TO MODERN TIMES
In its development, psychology has gone through several stages. Prescientific period ends about UN-U! c. BC.e., t. e, prior to the objective, scientific study of the psyche, its content and functions. During this period the idea of the soul based on numerous myths and legends, fairy tales and in the original religious beliefs that bind the soul with certain living beings. Second, a research period begins on rubezheU !! - U1 centuries. BC.e when psychology developed in the framework of philosophy, but because he was called philosophical period, shareware and lasted until the first school of psychology (associationism) and define your own psychological terminology, around the end of XVIII -. the beginning of the XIX century ,, when established itself as a unique understanding of the psychology science, which has its own independent subject, is the science of human and natural at the same time, studies and vnut * early, and external (behavioral) symptoms of the psyche. The time of occurrence of experimental psychology is the creation of the first experimental laboratory of Vundtav 1879.
For a long time the subject of psychology was the soul, but at different times, this concept means different content, in antiquity the soul is understood as a fundamental principle of the body, similar to e fundamental principle of the world, and its main function was considered giving the body the activity and its direction ,, because body weight is inert, ie, soul directs human behavior. Gradually added to the functions of the soul of knowledge, and thus, to the study of the activity increased learning stages of cognition.
In the Middle Ages the soul has been studied in the mainstream theology, which significantly reduces the possibility of its scientific knowledge. Therefore, although formally the subject of psychological science has not changed, in fact in the area of research at the time was to study the kinds of activity of the body and features primarily sensory perception. Regulatory function, volitional behavior, logical thinking is considered the prerogative of the divine will, bogovdohnovlennoy, not the material soul.
12. DEVELOPMENT OF PSYCHOLOGY IN EUROPE In the Middle Ages
Middle period begins falling in V. The Roman Empire and the establishment of Christianity, cultivate rejection of all knowledge based on experience, sin attempts to understand the structure and purpose of the human soul, is different from the biblical understanding of the nature and destiny of man. Natural-scientific study of nature was suspended, science was put to the service of the Church. The end of the "dead" for the psychology of the period considered in the XV., When there was a revival of art, secular science, the discovery of America,
Medieval philosophy was closely associated with the Christian religion, and it is allowed to develop only the scientific thoughts and ideas that are directly reflected and shared religious and secular positions of Christianity. Main views and concepts of understanding of human nature developed ideologues of Christianity and wore the imprint of the tenets of the Christian religion,
The development of psychology in this period was associated with a change in its object, since it became the official theology, the science of the soul. Therefore, psychology was either completely cede theology study of the psyche, or to find a niche for such research, which is not included! would be in contradiction with the official science - theology, in connection e this idea of the soul in psychology were ethical and religious nature during the medieval period, after the initial phase of development of psychology attacked strive to find their place in the study of the soul, to determine the range of questions that it may be given to theology. This has led in part to the revision of the subject matter of psychology - in the content of the soul was a special category, subject to scientific investigation. VHN-H1P centuries. in psychology emerged direction of deism, which claimedthat there are two souls - the spiritual (it studied theology) and the corporeal, that is studying psychology. So this is a subject for scientific study.
13. Psychological ideas from philosophers of the medieval Avreliya Avgustina and Fomy Akvinskogo
Avreliy Avgustin (354-430) was the largest Christian thinkers of the Middle Ages. His philosophy is a fusion of Christian and ancient doctrines, chief among which was the idealistic philosophy of Plato. The subject of knowledge is God, and at the same time it acts, and as a cause of knowledge, helping people to find the truth. The soul is defined as an independent substance which is neither corporeal property of any kind of body. The content of the soul is not something tangible, and it has nothing to do with the biological functions of the organism, and contains in itself a way of thinking, will and memory, as well as close to God and is immortal. Human nature is characterized not by the mind, but the action, as the former has only a passive character, and the second is closely related to the activity and will.Knowledge of the truth of God can only via faith, but not mind, t. E. Faith claimed predominance over reason and volitional irrational factors of rational logic in the learning process.
Foma Akvinsky (1225 / 26-1274) established its philosophy of understanding soul on Aristotle understanding passive and active forms of matter. Soul is immortal, as a substance to be clean and independent from any matter in general, and in particular the shell body. Soul - is shaping principle, which gives the basis of all human life. There are three types of souls (by analogy with Aristotle): vegetative soul, responsible for physiological functions and peculiar plants; sensitive soul inherent in animals and Veda sensory perception, voluntary movements; the rational soul, inherent only man has a mind, that is. e. the intellectual ability and capacity of the previous two inferior souls. The source of knowledge is not considered divine ideas, but the experience and sensory perception of the individual. All the knowledge of the material comes from the senses,and the intellect, the mind processes the material further.
14. Development of Psychology in the Renaissance
The scientists of the Renaissance was considered the main task of the revival of ancient values, cleansing ancient picture of the world from the "medieval barbarians." New philosophers again turn to Aristotle, in particular, to his understanding of the soul in his treatise "On the soul", and here begins disputes. The fundamental difference concerning the question of the immortality of the soul - the main issue in the church's doctrine. The first group (Averroists) shared the mind (intellect) and soul and thought the mind as the highest part of the soul, immortal, and the second group (alexandrists) insisted on the integrity of the Aristotelian doctrine and his thesis that all the faculties of the soul completely disappear with the body. Actively develop the ideas of the Renaissance in Italy and Spain.
Italian Leonardo da Vinci (1452-1519) believed that a person can realize their spiritual forces in the real value and transform the nature of their a