Notes
1. UN Doc A/51/322, September 3, 1996.
2. See Kimberly Theidon, “Domesticando la Violencia: Alcohol y las Secuelas de la Guerra,” Ideele: Revista del Instituto de Defensa Legal 120 (July 1999): 56–63; and “Gender in Transition: Common Sense, Women and War,” Journal of Human Rights 6, no. 4 (2007): 453–78. The latter article was a product of a USIP grantfunded project.
3. Mark Ellis, “Breaking the Silence: Rape as an International Crime,” Case Western Reserve Journal of International Law 38, no. 2 (2006–07): 225–47.
4. Ellis, “Breaking the Silence,” 228.
5. Catherine N. Niarchos, “Women, War, and Rape: Challenges Facing the International Tribunal for the Former Yugoslavia,” Human Rights Quarterly 17, no. 4 (1995): 649–90. On the absence of rape in the Nuremberg Charter, see also Theodor Meron, “Rape as a Crime Under International Law,” American Journal of International Law 87, no. 3 (1993): 424–28. 6. Natalie Florea Hudson, “Security Discourse as a Political Framework for Action: A Comparative Analysis of Children and Women in the UN Security Council” paper presented at the Annual Meeting of the International Studies Association, New York City, February 15, 2009.
7. Ellis, “Breaking the Silence,” 229.
8. Articles in the Geneva Convention that protect women, as indicated by Ellis (“Breaking the Silence,” 236–37). 9. UN Human Rights Council, “Report of the Special Rapporteur on Violence Against Women, its Causes and Consequences,” Yakin Erturk, “15 Years of the United Nations Special Rapporteur on Violence Against Women, Its Causes and Consequences (1994–2009)—A Critical Review” panel discussion, UN Secretariat, New York, May 27, 2009, 21.
10. Niarchos, “Women, War, and Rape,” 674.
11. UN Human Rights Council, “Report of the Special Rapporteur,” 21–22.
12. United Nations Division for the Advancement of Women, “Short History of the Commission on the Status of Women,” 4, www.un.org/womenwatch/daw/CSW60YRS/CSWbriefhistory.pdf.
13. Article 3 of the Convention on the Elimination of All Forms of Discrimination Against Women, adopted 18 Dec. 1979, G.A. Res. 34/180, 34 U.N. GAOR Supp. (No. 46), U.N. Doc A/34/36 (1980), entered into force September 3, 1981.
14. “Outcomes on Gender and Equality,” www.un.org/en/development/devagenda/gender.shtml.
15. See UNIFEM website, www.unifem.org/about/faq.php.
16. Beijing Platform for Action, “Critical Areas of Concern,” Fourth World Conference on Women, September 15, 1995, A/CONF.177/20/Add.1 (1995). See also Judith Gardam and Michelle Jarvis, “Women and Armed Conflict: The International Response to the Beijing Platform for Action,” Columbia Human Rights Law Review 3, no. 1 (2000–01): 4.
17. United Nations Economic and Social Council, “Gender Mainstreaming,” Extract from the Report of the Economic and Social Council for 1997 (A/52/3) September 18, 1997, at 2.
18. Rome Statute of the International Criminal Court, article 7, July 17, 1998.
19. Ellis, “Breaking the Silence,” 236.
20. Ibid., 226–27.
21. Kelly D. Askin, “Sexual Violence in Decisions and Indictments of the Yugoslav and Rwandan Tribunals: Current Status,” American Journal of International Law 93, no. 2 (1999): 98.
22. Hudson, “Security Discourse,” 5.
23. Ibid.
24. United Nations Security Council Resolution 1325, adopted October 31, 2000, S/RES/1325 (2000).
25. UN Human Rights Council, “Report of the Special Rapporteur,” 25.
26. Christina Binder, Karin Lukas, and Romana Schweiger, “Empty Words or Real Achievement? The Impact of Security Council Resolution 1325 on Women in Armed Conflicts,” Radical History Review 101 (Spring 2008): 26.
27. United Nations Division for the Advancement of Women, “Short History of the Commission on the Status of Women,” 13, www.un.org/womenwatch/daw/CSW60YRS/CSWbriefhistory.pdf.
28. Sylvia Chant and Matthew C. Gutman, Mainstreaming Men into Gender and Development: Debates, Reflections and Experiences (London: Oxfam, 2000), 6.
29. Sophie Richter-Devroe, “Gender, Culture, and Conflict Resolution in Palestine,” Journal of Middle East Women’s Studies 4, no. 2 (Spring 2008): 34.
30. Suzette Mitchell, “Gender and Development: A SAFE Recipe,” Development in Practice 6, no. 2 (May 1996): 140.
31. Hilary Charlesworth, “Not Waving but Drowning: Gender Mainstreaming and Human Rights in the United Nations,” Harvard Human Rights Journal 18, no. 1 (2005): 2.
32. Mitchell, “Gender and Development,” 140.
33. Anne Gallagher, “Ending the Marginalization: Strategies for Incorporating Women into the United Nations Human Rights System,” Human Rights Quarterly 19, no. 2 (1997): 288.
34. United Nations Economic and Social Council, “Gender Mainstreaming,” extract from the Report of the Economic and Social Council for 1997 (A/52/3) September 18, 1997, at 2.
35. WHO, “WHO Gender Policy: Integrating Gender Perspectives in the Work of WHO” (2002) 1, www.who.int/gender/documents/engpolicy.pdf.
36. Charlesworth, “Not Waving but Drowning,” 5–6.
37. Hannah Warren, “Using Gender-Analysis Frameworks: Theoretical and Practical Reflections,” Gender & Development 15, no. 2 (July 2007): 189.
38. Ibid., 190.
39. Among the most well-known gender options are the Harvard Framework; the People-Oriented Planning Framework; the Moser Framework; the Gender Analysis Matrix (GAM); the Capabilities and Vulnerabilities Framework; the Women’s Empowerment (Longwe) Framework; and the Social Relations (Kabeer) Framework. It is beyond the scope of this report to provide a detailed assessment of each approach, but suffice it to say that the variety of approaches, while not negative per se, reflects the lack of consensus on key concepts and methods, which may, in turn, obscure both means and ends.
40. Warren, “Using Gender-Analysis Frameworks,” 189.
41. Ibid.
42. Elaine Zuckerman, Wu Qing, Aida Orgocka, and Hilary Sims Feldstein, “Reforming the World Bank: Will the New Gender Strategy Make a Difference? A Study with China Case Examples” (Washington, DC: Heinrich Boll Foundation, 2003), 10.
43. Shahra Razavi and Carol Miller, “Gender Mainstreaming: A Study of Efforts by the UNDP, the World Bank and the ILO to Institutionalize Gender Issues,” occasional paper 4, United Nations Research Institute for Social Development and United Nations Development Program, 1995, iii.
44. Camille Pampell Conaway, “The Role of Women in Stabilization and Reconstruction,” report, United States Institute of Peace Stabilization and Reconstruction Series No. 3, August 2006, 1. This report is based on a series of consultations under the auspices of the Working Group on the Role of Women in Stabilization and Reconstruction Operations, chaired by Harriet Hentges, former USIP executive vice president, and Harriet C. Babbitt, senior vice president of the Hunt Alternatives Fund. More than fifty experts from the U.S. government and international and nongovernmental organizations were convened in 2004 and 2005 to identify best practices and select priority recommendations on the role of women in stabilization and reconstruction.
45. Conaway, “The Role of Women,” 5–6.
46. Zuckerman et al., “Reforming the World Bank,” 11.
47. Noelle Quenivet, “The Dissonance Between the United Nations Zero-Tolerance Policy and the Criminalisation of Sexual Offences on the International Level,” International Criminal Law Review 7, no. 4 (2007): 660.
48. Judith Gardam and Hilary Charlesworth, “Protection of Women in Armed Conflict,” Human Rights Quarterly 22, no. 1 (2000): 159.
49. Zuckerman et al., “Reforming the World Bank,” 10.
50. Hudson, “Security Discourse as a Political Framework,” 2.
51. Charlesworth, “Not Waving but Drowning,” 13.
52. Ibid., 18.
53. Warren, “Using Gender-Analysis Frameworks,” 189.
54. For a discussion of this dynamic in DDR programs, see Kimberly Theidon, “Reconstructing Masculinities: The Disarmament, Demobilization, and Reintegration of Former Combatants in Colombia,” Human Rights Quarterly 31, no. 1 (2009): 1–34.
55. This approach has informed the structure of the Colombian National Commission on Reparations and Reconciliation (CNRR) as well. The DDR program appears as one area of intervention. The Gender and Specific Populations unit—defined to include women, children and indigenous populations—is another. Although one of the stated goals is to make gender a transversal theme, this is not a propitious way to begin.
56. Chant and Gutman, Mainstreaming Men, 4.
57. Ibid.
58. Feleke Tadele, “Men in the Kitchen, Women in the Office?” in Gender Works: Oxfam Experience in Policy and Practice, edited by Fenella Porter, Ines A. Smyth, and Caroline Sweetman (London: Oxfam Great Britain, 1999), 33.
59. Ibid., 34.
60. Ibid., 35.
61. Although Tadele refers to both genders in his article, we prefer all genders to avoid the heteronormativity the former terms implies.
62. For an eloquent critique of Western feminism as a form of theoretical and discursive imperialism, see Chandra Talpade Mohanty, “Under Western Eyes: Feminist Scholarship and Colonial Discourse,” in Third World Women and the Politics of Feminism, edited by Chandra Talpade Mohanty, Ann Russo, and Lourdes Torres (Indianapolis: Indiana University Press, 1991).
63. Usha Kar, “Much Ado About Knitting,” in Gender Works, 27.
64. Ibid.
65. Sophie Richter-Devroe, “Gender, Culture, and Conflict Resolution in Palestine,” Journal of Middle East Women’s Studies 4, no. 2 (Spring 2008): 7.
66. For more on this point, see Theidon’s various articles on gender, trauma, and social repair in Peru.
67. The classic work on this subject is Carol Cohn, “Sex and Death in the Rational World of Defense Intellectuals,” Signs 12, no. 4 (1987): 687–718.
68. Niarchos, “Women, War, and Rape,” 670.
69. Ibid. See also the analysis of the gendered language of nuclear weapons scientists in Cohn, “Sex and Death.”
70. See Theidon, “Reconstructing Masculinities,” 453–78.
71. Hugh Gusterson, “Anthropology and Militarism,” Annual Review of Anthropology 36 (2007): 165.
72. The legal theorist, and former Air Force ROTC officer, Elizabeth Hillman has produced a body of work on “blue on blue” violence, that is, violence that occurs within the military, involving soldiers sexually assaulting other soldiers. Hillman’s extensive publications can be found on her website at the University of California Hastings College of the Law (http://library.uchastings.edu/library/bibliographies/faculty/Elizabeth-L.-Hillman/).
73. Cami R. Rowe, “‘That Whole Gender Paradigm’: Iraq War Veterans Embodying Feminist Approaches to Dissent,” paper presented at the Annual Meeting of the International Studies Association, New York City, February 15, 2009.
74. Ibid.
75. Ibid.
76. Fionnuala Ni Aolain, “Women, Security, and the Patriarchy of Internationalized Transitional Justice,” Human Rights Quarterly 31, no. 4 (2009): 1067.
77. Ibid., 1067.
78. Theidon, “Reconstructing Masculinities.”
79. See Colleen Duggan, “Foreword,” in What Happened to the Women? Gender and Reparations for Human Rights Violations, edited by Ruth Rubio-Marin (New York: Social Science Research Council, 2006), 18.
80. Ni Aolain, “Women, Security, and the Patriarchy,” 1072.
81. Ibid., 1060.
82. Ibid., 1062.
83. Ibid., 1072.
84. For example, see Catherine Lutz, Homefront: A Military City and the American 20th Century (Boston, MA: Beacon Press, 2001). In addition, see Cynthia Enloe’s body of work on militarization and gender.
85. Ni Aolain, “Women, Security, and the Patriarchy,” 1065.
86. Valerie M. Hudson, Mary Caprioli, Bonnie Ballif-Spanvill, Rose McDermott, and Chad F. Emmet, “The Heart of the Matter: The Security of Women and the Security of States,” International Security 33, no. 3 (Winter 2008–09): 8.
87. Scott Coltrane, “Theorizing Masculinities in Contemporary Social Science,” In Theorizing Masculinities, edited by Harry Brod and Michael Kaufman (Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage Publications, 1994).
88. Foster 2000: 223. Foster notes that the South African TRC’s Final Report acknowledged the commission had neglected to study masculinity and violence, which prompts him to pose a series of interesting questions: “What is it about masculinity that under certain circumstances render such an identity form so noxious? What are the circumstances? All of this awaits research,” 227.
89. R. W. Connell, Masculinities, 2nd ed. (Berkeley: University of California Press, 2005), 84.
90. Ibid., 76.
91. Among others, see Joshua Goldstein, War and Gender: How Gender Shapes the War System and Vice Versa (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2001).
92. David H. J. Morgan, “Theater of War: Combat, the Military, and Masculinities,” in Theorizing Masculinities, edited by Harry Brod and Michael Kaufman (Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage Publications, 1994), 165.
93. Hudson et al., “Heart of the Matter,” 15, 23. Theidon irreverently refers to this literature as the “But what about chimpanzees and testosterone?” approach to understanding gender inequalities. For a powerful critique of the inherent sexism that has influenced the primatology studies on which many of these theories are based, see Donna Haraway, Simians, Cyborgs and Women: The Reinvention of Nature (London: Routledge, 1990).
94. Hudson et al., “Heart of the Matter,” 23.
95. The classic work on male fraternities is Peggy Sanday, Fraternity Gang Rape: Sex, Brotherhood and Privilege on the College Campus (New York: New York University Press, 1990). On military socialization, the literature is vast. A good place to start is with Goldstein, War and Gender; Dave Grossman, The Psychological Cost of Learning to Kill in War and Society (New York: Little, Brown, 1996); and Richard Holmes, Acts of War: The Behavior of Men in Battle (New York: Free Press, 1985). For a fascinating analysis of how torture may be resignified as a source of pride and a route to male authority, see Julie Peteet, “Male Gender and Rituals of Resistance in the Palestinian ‘Intifada’: A Cultural Politics of Violence,” American Ethnologist 21, no. 1 (1994): 31–49. In addition to academic and practitioner texts and documents, some of the finest work has been authored by former soldiers. For an overview of key texts, see Keith Brown and Catherine Lutz, “Grunt Lit: The Participant Observers of Empire,” American Ethnologist 34, no. 2 (2007): 322–28.
96. Preliminary findings from the Harvard University–funded project, “After the Truth: The Legacies of Sexual violence in Peru,” which involves ongoing research that Theidon is conducting with Edith Del Pino and Juan Jose Yupanqui.
97. For further discussion of these issues, see Kimberly Theidon, Intimate Enemies: Violence and Reconciliation in Peru (Philadelphia: University of Pennsylvania Press, forthcoming). This book is a product of a USIP grantfunded project.
98. Hudson et al., “Heart of the Matter,” 24.
99. Ibid.
100. See Theidon, “Reconstructing Masculinities.” Another compelling example of this phenomenon can be found in Anonymous, A Woman in Berlin: Eight Weeks in the Conquered City—A Diary, 2nd ed. (New York: Picador, 2006).
101. See Lorraine Bayard de Volo, “Mobilizing Mothers for War: Cross-National Framing Strategies in Nicaragua’s Contra War,” Gender and Society 18, no. 6 (December 2004): 715–34.
102. James M. O’Neil, “Summarizing 25 Years of Research on Men’s Gender Role Conflict Using the Gender Role Conflict Scale: New Research Paradigms and Clinical Implications,” Counseling Psychologist 36, no. 3 (2008): 393.
103. Ibid.
104. Valerie Hudson and Andrea Den Boer, “A Surplus of Men, a Deficit of Peace: Security and Sex Ratios in Asia’s Largest States,” International Security 26, no. 4 (Spring 2002): 11.
105. Ibid., 17.
106. Ibid., 14–15.
107. The notion that men’s sexual needs must be satisfied, lest they pose a danger to the broader society, has been used to justify the establishment of brothels, recruitment of sex workers, and, at times, elaborate military planning for “servicing the troops.” See Cynthia Enloe, Maneuvers: The International Politics of Militarizing Women’s Lives (Berkeley: University of California Press, 2000).
108. Ibid.
109. Connell, Masculinities, 260.
110. An excellent edited volume on women’s multiple roles is Meredith Turshen and Clotilde Twagiramariya, eds., What Women Do in Wartime (London: Zed Books, 1998).
111. We borrow this heading from Tara McKelvey, ed., One of the Guys? Women as Aggressors and Torturers (Emeryville, CA: Seal Press, 2007).
112. See, for example, Mary Kaldor, New and Old Wars: Organized Violence in a Global Era (Palo Alto, CA: Stanford University Press, 1999); Stathis Kalyvas, The Logic of Violence in Civil War (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2006).
113. Charlotte Lindsey, “The Impact of Armed Conflict on Women,” in Listening to the Silences: Women and War, edited by Helen Durham and Tracey Gurd (Leiden: Martinus Nijhoff, 2005), 22.
114. Jean Bethke Elshtain, Women and War (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1987), 4.
115. Cheryl Toman, “Women, War, and Conflict,” Women’s Studies International Forum 32, no. 3 (2009): 326.
116. See Theidon, “Reconstructing Masculinities.”
117. Chris Coulter, Bush Wives and Girl Soldiers: Women’s Lives through War and Peace in Sierra Leone (Ithaca, NY: Cornell University Press, 2009), 139–40.
118. See, among others, ibid.; Vanessa Farr, Gendering Demilitarization as a Peacebuilding Tool, (Bonn: Bonn International Center for Conversation, 2002); Rachel Brett and Irma Specht, Young Soldiers: Why They Choose to Fight (Boulder, CO: Lynne Reiner, 2004); Dyan Mazurana and Susan McKay, Where Are the Girls? Girls in Fighting Forces in Northern Uganda, Sierra Leone, and Mozambique: Their Lives During and After War, (Montreal: Rights and Democracy, 2004); and Natalia Springer, Desactivar la guerra: alternativas audaces para consolidar la paz (Colombia: Editorial Aguila, 2005).
119. Mats Utas, “Victimcy, Girlfriending, Soldiering: Tactic Agency in a Young Woman’s Social Navigation of the Liberian War Zone,” Anthropological Quarterly 78, no. 2 (Spring 2005): 406.
120. Nancy Caro Hollander, “The Gendering of Human Rights: Women and the Latin American Terrorist State,” Feminist Studies 22, no. 1 (1996): 62.
121. Utas, “Victimcy, Girlfriending, Soldiering,” 426.
122. Hollander, “Gendering of Human Rights,” 62.
123. See also Utas, “Victimcy, Girlfriending, Soldiering,” 407: “By employing a perspective that makes a woman exclusively a victim, researchers risk creating a permanent state of what Kathleen Barry calls victimism; i.e. a woman’s victim status ‘creates a framework for others to know her not as a person but as a victim, someone to whom violence is done.’ ”
124. For a discussion of this theme, see Elizabeth Wood, “Armed Groups and Sexual Violence: When is Wartime Rape Rare?” Politics & Society 37, no. 1 (2009): 131–62.
125. Susan Brownmiller, Against Our Will: Men, Women and Rape (New York: Ballantine Books, 1975), 24.
126. Wood, “Armed Groups and Sexual Violence,” 153.
127. Ibid.
128. Ibid.
129. One of the newest contributors of note is Dara Cohen, who was a USIP Jennings Randolph Peace Scholar in 2008–09.
130. Maria B. Olujic, “Embodiment of Terror: Gendered Violence in Peacetime and Wartime in Croatia and Bosnia-Herzegovina,” Medical Anthropology Quarterly 12, no. 1 (1998): 37.
131. Ibid., 35.
132. Ibid., 31.
133. Jelke Boesten, “Marrying Your Rapist: Domesticated War Crimes in Peru,” in Gendered Peace: Women’s Struggles for Post-War Justice and Reconciliation, edited by Donna Pankhurst (Geneva: Routledge & UNRISD, 2007), 205.
134. Ibid., 206.
135. Quoted in Julie Guillerot, “Linking Gender and Reparations in Peru: A Failed Opportunity,” in What Happened to the Women? 185.
136. UN Human Rights Council, “Report of the Special Rapporteur on Violence Against Women, Its Causes and Consequences,” Yakin Erturk, “Addendum—Mission to the DRC,” A/HRC/7/6/Add.4, Summary, www2.ohchr.org/english/issues/women/rapporteur/annual.htm.
137. See Cynthia Cockburn, “The Gendered Dynamics of Armed Conflict and Political Violence,” in Victims, Perpetrators or Actors? Gender, Armed Conflict and Political Violence, edited by Carolyn Moser and Fiona Clark (London: Zed Books, 2001).
138. Margaret Urban Walker, “Gender and Violence in Focus: A Background for Gender Justice in Reparations,” in What Happened to the Women? 23.
139. Roland Littlewood, “Military Rape,” Anthropology Today 13, no. 2 (1997): 13.
140. Ibid.
141. See Kimberly Theidon, Entre Prójimos: El conflicto armado interno y la política de la reconciliación en el Perú (Lima: Instituto de Estudios Peruanos, 2004 and 2009).
142. Vasuki Nesiah, “Discussion Line on Gender and Transitional Justice: An Introductory Essay Reflecting on the ICTJ Bellagio Workshop on Gender and Transitional Justice,” Columbia Journal of Gender and Law 15 (2006): 805.
143. Harry G. West, “Girls with Guns: Narrating the Experience of War of FRELIMO’s ‘Female Detachment,’ ” Anthropological Quarterly 73, no. 4 (October 2000): 181.
144. Interview with a communal authority in an unnamed community in central Ayacucho, July 2009. Theidon suspects that although soldiers were willing to be seen raping women, they were less inclined to publicly rape men for fear of being labeled homosexual.
145. Sandesh Sivakumaran, “Male/Male Rape and the ‘Taint’ of Homosexuality,” Human Rights Quarterly 27 (2005): 1279.
146. Ibid., 1289.
147. Ibid., 1291.
148. Ibid.
149. Ibid.
150. Amnesty International, “Rape and Sexual Abuse: Torture and Ill-Treatment of Women in Detention,” ACT 77/011/1991, at 1.
151. See Michele Leiby, “Digging in the Archives: The Promise and Perils of Primary Documents,” Politics & Society 37, no. 1 (2006): 75–99.
152. This title is borrowed from Sheila Meintjes, Anu Pillay, and Meredeth Turshen, “There Is No Aftermath for Women,” in The Aftermath: Women in Post-Conflict Transformation, edited by Meredeth Turshan, Anu Pillay and Sheila Meintjes (London: Zed Books, 2002).
153. Rita Manchanda, “Ambivalent Gains in South Asian Conflicts,” in The Aftermath.