NASA's Contributions to Aeronautics, Volume 2 by National Aeronautics & Space Administration. - HTML preview

Endnotes

[1]. Ernest K. Gann, Fate is the Hunter (New York: Simon & Schuster, 1961), pp. 79–87.

[2]. Ibid., pp. 88–93.

[3]. Ibid., pp. 94–107.

[4]. Ibid., p. 79.

[5]. Harald Penrose, Wings Across the World (London: Cassell, 1980), p. 114; R.E.G. Davies, British Airways: An Airline and its Aircraft, v. 1: The Imperial Years (McLean, VA: Paladwr Press, 2005), pp. 94, 96.

[6]. U.S. Civil Aeronautics Board, Bureau of Safety Investigation, Comparative Safety Statistics in United States Airline Operations, Pt. 1: Years 1938–1945 (Washington, DC: CAB BSI Analysis Division, 15 August 1953), p. 29.

[7]. Bob Buck [Robert N. Buck], North Star Over My Shoulder: A Flying Life (New York: Simon & Schuster, 2002), p. 113. Once America’s youngest licensed pilot, Buck authored two influential books on aviation safety, Weather Flying (New York: The Macmillan Co., 1978); and The Pilot’s Burden: Flight Safety and the Roots of Pilot Error (Ames, IA: Iowa State University Press, 1994).

[8]. William M. Leary, “A Perennial Challenge to Aviation Safety: Battling the Menace of Ice,” in Roger D. Launius and Janet R. Daly Bednarek, eds., Reconsidering a Century of Flight (Chapel Hill, NC: University of North Carolina Press, 2003), pp. 132–151.

[9]. See, for example, Wesley L. Smith, “Weather Problems Peculiar to the New York-Chicago Airway,” Monthly Weather Review vol. 57, no. 12 (Dec. 1929), pp. 503–506.

[10]. Thomas Carroll and William H. McAvoy, “The Formation of Ice Upon Airplanes in Flight,” NACA TN-313 (1929); Montgomery Knight and William C. Clay, “Refrigerated Wind Tunnel Tests on Surface Coatings for Preventing Ice Formation,” NACA TN-339 (1930); W. Bleeker, “The Formation of Ice on Aircraft,” NACA TM-1027 (1942) [trans. of “Einige Bermerkungen über Eisansatz an Flugzeugen,” Meteorologische Zeitschrift (Sep. 1932), pp. 349–354.

[11]. For samples of Rodert’s work, see Lewis A. Rodert, “An Investigation of the Prevention of Ice on the Airplane Windshield,” TN-754 (1940); Lewis A. Rodert and Alun R. Jones, “A Flight Investigation of Exhaust-Heat De-Icing,” NACA TN-783 (1940); Lewis A. Rodert, “The Effects of Aerodynamic Heating on Ice Formations on Airplane Propellers,” TN-799 (1941); Lewis A. Rodert and Richard Jackson, “Preliminary Investigation and Design of an Air-Heated Wing for Lockheed 12A Airplane,” NACA ARR A-34 (1942).

[12]. George W. Gray, Frontiers of Flight: The Story of NACA Research (New York: Alfred A. Knopf, 1948), pp. 308–316; and Henry A. Essex, “A Laboratory Investigation of the Icing Characteristics of the Bendix-Stromberg Carburetor Model PD-12F5 with the Pratt and Whitney R-1830-C4 Intermediate Rear Engine Section,” NACA-WR-E-18 (1944); William D. Coles, “Laboratory Investigation of Ice Formation and Elimination in the Induction System of a Large Twin-Engine Cargo Aircraft,” NACA TN-1427 (1947).

[13]. Edwin P. Hartman Adventures in Research: A History of Ames Research Center 1940-1965, NASA SP-4302 (Washington, DC: GPO, 1970), pp. 69–73; and Glenn E. Bugos, “Lew Rodert, Epistemological Liaison, and Thermal De-Icing at Ames,” in Pamela E. Mack, ed., From Engineering Science to Big Science: The NACA and NASA Collier Trophy Research Project Winners, NASA SP-4219 (Washington, DC: NASA, 1998), pp. 29–58.

[14]. For example, G. Merritt Preston and Calvin C. Blackman, “Effects of Ice Formations on Airplane Performance in Level Cruising Flight,” NACA TN-1598 (1948); Alun R. Jones and William Lewis, “Recommended Values of Meteorological Factors to be Considered in the Design of Aircraft Ice-Prevention Equipment,” NACA TN-1855 (1949); Carr B. Neel, Jr., and Loren G. Bright, “The Effect of Ice Formations on Propeller Performance, NACA TN-2212 (1950).

[15]. James P. Lewis, Thomas F. Gelder, Stanley L. Koutz, “Icing Protection for a Turbojet Transport Airplane: Heating Requirements, Methods of Protection, and Performance Penalties,” NACA TN-2866 (1953).

[16]. Porter J. Perkins, “Icing Frequencies Experienced During Climb and Descent by Fighter-Interceptor Aircraft,” NACA TN-4314 (1958); and James P. Lewis and Robert J. Blade, “Experimental Investigation of Radome Icing and Icing Protection,” NACA RM-E52J31 (1953).

[17]. As referenced in U.S. National Transportation Safety Board, “In-Flight Icing Encounter and Loss of Control Simmons Airlines, d.b.a. American Eagle Flight 4184 Avions de Transport Regional (ATR) Model 72-212, N401AM, Roselawn, Indiana October 31, 1994,” NTSB/AAR-96/01 (Washington, DC: NTSB, 1996), pp. 97–99.

[18]. William M. Leary, “We Freeze to Please”: A History of NASA’s Icing Research Tunnel and the Quest for Flight Safety, NASA SP-2002-4226 (Washington, DC: NASA, 2002), p. 60. Glahn did much notable work in icing research; see Uwe H. von Glahn and Vernon H. Gray, “Effect of Ice and Frost Formations on Drag of NACA 65-212 Airfoil for Various Modes of Thermal Ice Protection,” NACA TN-2962 (1953); Uwe H. von Glahn and Vernon H. Gray, “Effect of Ice Formations on Section Drag of Swept NACA 63A-009 Airfoil with Partial Span Leading Edge Slat for Various Modes of Thermal Ice Protection,” NACA RM-E53J30 (1954); Uwe H. von Glahn, Edmund E. Callaghan, and Vernon H. Gray, “NACA Investigation of Icing-Protection Systems for Turbojet-Engine Installations,” NACA RM-E51B12 (1951); Uwe H. von Glahn, Thomas F. Gelder, and William H. Smyers, Jr., “A Dye-Tracer Technique for Experimentally Obtaining Impingement Characteristics of Arbitrary Bodies and Method for Determining Droplet Size Distribution,” NACA TN-3338 (1955); Vernon H. Gray and Uwe H. von Glahn, “Aerodynamic Effects Caused by Icing of an Unswept NACA 65A004 Airfoil,” NACA TN-4155 (1958); Vernon H. Gray, Dean T. Bowden, and Uwe H. von Glahn, “Preliminary Results of Cyclical De-Icing of a Gas-Heated Airfoil,” NACA RM-E51J29 (1952).

[19]. Leary, “We Freeze to Please”, p. 72.

[20]. National Transportation Safety Board, Collision with 14th Street Bridge Near Washington National Airport, Air Florida Flight 90, Boeing 737-222, N62AF, Washington, D.C., January 13, 1982, NTSB/AAR-82-8 (1982).

[21]. Leary, “We Freeze to Please”, p. 82.

[22]. R.J. Ranaudo, K.L. Mikkelsen, R.C. McKnight, P.J. Perkins, Jr., “Performance Degradation of a Typical Twin Engine Commuter Type Aircraft in Measured Natural Icing Conditions,” NASA TM-83564 (1984).

[23]. R. John Hansman, Kenneth S. Breuer, Didier Hazan, Andrew Reehorst, Mario Vargas, “Close-Up Analysis of Aircraft Ice Accretion,” NASA TM-105952 (1993).

[24]. Civil Aviation Authority of New Zealand, “Aircraft Icing Handbook” (2000), p. 2.

[25]. R.C. McKnight, R.L. Palko, and R.L. Humes, “In-flight Photogrammetric Measurement of Wing Ice Accretions,” NASA TM-87191 (1986).

[26]. John R. Hansman, Jr., “The Influence of Ice Accretion Physics on the Forecasting of Aircraft Icing Conditions,” NASA Joint University Program for Air Transportation Research, NASA NTRS 90N20928 (1990).

[27]. M. Dietenberger, P. Kumar, and J. Luers, “Frost Formation on an Airfoil: A Mathematical Model 1,” NASA-CR-3129 (1979).

[28]. John J. Reinmann, Robert J. Shaw, and W.A. Olsen, Jr., “NASA Lewis Research Center’s Program on Icing Research,” NASA TM-83031 (1983).

[29]. A.E. Albright, D.L. Kohlman, W.G. Schweikhard, and P. Evanich, “Evaluation of a Pneumatic Boot Deicing System on a General Aviation Wing,” NASA TM-82363 (1981).

[30]. “The Early Years—1930s,” Killfrost, Inc. of Coral Springs, FL (2009).

[31]. J. Love, T. Elliott, G.C. Das, D.K. Hammond, R.J. Schwarzkopf, L.B. Jones, and T.L. Baker, “Screening and Identification of Cryopreservative Agents for Human Cellular Biotechnology Experiments in Microgravity,” 2004 ASGSB Meeting, Brooklyn, NY, Nov. 2004.

[32]. Society of Automotive Engineers, “Deicing/Anti-icing Fluid, Aircraft, SAE Type 1,” AMS 1224 (Rev. J) (2009).

[33]. Society of Automotive Engineers, “Fluid, Aircraft Deicing/Anti-Icing, Non-Newtonian (Pseudoplastic), SAE Types II, III, and IV,” AMS 1228 (Rev. G) (2009).

[34]. “Preventing Ice Before it Forms,” Spinoff 2006 (Washington, DC: NASA, 2006), pp. 46–47.

[35]. Theodore Theodorsen and William C. Clay, “Ice Prevention on Aircraft by Means of Engine Exhaust Heat and a Technical Study of Heat Transmission from a Clark Y Airfoil,” NACA TR-403 (1933).

[36]. William D. Coles, “Laboratory Investigation of Ice Formation and Elimination in the Induction System of a Large Twin-Engine Cargo Aircraft,” NACA TN-1427 (1947). Henry A. Essex, “A Laboratory Investigation of the Icing Characteristics of the Bendix-Stromberg Carburetor Model PD-12F5 with the Pratt and Whitney R-1830-C4 Intermediate Rear Engine Section,” NACA WR-E-18 (1944).

[37]. R.W. Obermayer and T.W. Roe, “A Study of Carburetor/Induction System Icing in General Aviation Accidents,” NASA CR-143835 (1975).

[38]. G.W. Zumwalt, R.L. Schrag, W.D. Bernhart, and R.A. Friedberg, “Analyses and Tests for Design of an Electro-Impulse De-Icing System,” NASA CR-174919 (1985).

[39]. G.W. Zumwalt and R.A. Friedberg, “Designing an Electro-Impulse De-Icing System,” AIAA Paper 86-0545 (1986).

[40]. G.W. Zumwalt, “Electro-Impulse De-Icing: A Status Report,” AIAA Paper 88-0019 (1988).

[41]. “Breaking the Ice,” Spinoff 1989 (Washington, DC: NASA, 1989) pp. 64–65.

[42]. Interview of Jaiwon Shin, Associate Administrator for NASA’s Aeronautics Research Mission Directorate, by Jim Banke, Orlando, FL, 5 Jan. 2010 Shin’s own contributions to the study of aircraft icing have been substantial. For a sampling of his work, see Jaiwon Shin, “Characteristics of Surface Roughness Associated with Leading Edge Ice Accretion,” NASA TM-106459 (1994); Jaiwon Shin, “The NASA Aviation Safety Program: Overview,” NASA TM-2000-209810 (2000); Jaiwon Shin and Thomas H. Bond, “Results of an Icing Test on a NACA 0012 Airfoil in the NASA Lewis Icing Research Tunnel,” NASA TM-105374 (1992); Jaiwon Shin, Hsun H. Chen, and Tuncer Cebeci, “A Turbulence Model for Iced Airfoils and Its Validation,” NASA TM-105373 (1992); Jaiwon Shin, Brian Berkowitz, Hsun H. Chen, and Tuncer Cebeci, “Prediction of Ice Shapes and their Effect on Airfoil Performance,” NASA TM-103701 (1991); Jaiwon Shin, Peter Wilcox, Vincent Chin, and David Sheldon, “Icing Test Results on an Advanced Two-Dimensional High-Lift Multi-Element Airfoil,” NASA TM-106620 (1994); Thomas H. Bond and Jaiwon Shin, “Results of Low Power Deicer Tests on the Swept Inlet Component in the NASA Lewis Icing Research Tunnel,” NASA TM-105968 (1993); and Thomas H. Bond, Jaiwon Shin, and Geert A. Mesander, “Advanced Ice Protection Systems Test in the NASA Lewis Icing Research Tunnel,” NASA TM-103757 (1991).

[43]. Dale Hiltner, Michael McKee, Karine La Noé, and Gerald Gregorek, “DHC-6 Twin Otter Tail Plane Airfoil Section Testing in the Ohio State University 7x10 Wind Tunnel,” NASA-CR-2000-2099921/VOL1 (2000).

[44]. Gerald Gregorek, John J. Dresse, and Karine La Noé, “Additional Testing of the DHC-6 Twin Otter Tail Plane Airfoil Section Testing in the Ohio State University 7x10 Low Speed Wind Tunnel,” NASA-CR-2000-29921/VOL2 (2000).

[45]. Judith Foss Van Zante, and Thomas P. Ratvasky, “Investigation of Dynamic Flight Maneuvers with an Iced Tail Plane,” NASA TM-1999-208849 (1999).

[46]. The video is available online via YouTube at http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=_ifKduc1hE8&feature=PlayList&p=18B9F75B0B7A3DB9&playnext=1&playnext_from=PL&index=3.

[47]. William B. Wright, Mark G. Potapczuk, and Laurie H. Levinson, “Comparison of LEWICE and GlennICE in the SLD Regime,” NASA TM-2008-215174 (2008).

[48]. Jaiwon Shin, Brian Berkowitz, Hsun Chen, and Tuncer Cebeci, “Prediction of Ice Shapes and their Effect on Airfoil Performance,” NASA TM-103701 (1991).

[49]. William B. Wright and Adam Rutkowski, “Validation Results for LEWICE 2.0,” NASA CR-1999-208690 (1999).

[50]. For these programs and their validation, see William B. Wright, “Users Manual for the Improved NASA Lewis Ice Accretion Code LEWICE 1.6,” NASA CR-1995-198355 (1995); William B. Wright, “User Manual for the NASA Glenn Ice Accretion Code LEWICE Version 2.0,” NASA CR-1999-209409 (1999); William B. Wright, “User Manual for the NASA Glenn Ice Accretion Code LEWICE Version 2.2.2,” NASA CR-2002-211793 (2002); William B. Wright, “Further Refinement of the LEWICE SLD Model,” NASA CR-2006-214132 (2006); William B. Wright, “User’s Manual for LEWICE Version 3.2,” NASA CR-2008-214255 (2008); William B. Wright and James Chung, “Correlation Between Geometric Similarity of Ice Shapes and the Resulting Aerodynamic Performance Degradation-A Preliminary Investigation Using WIND,” NASA CR-1999-209417 (1999); William B. Wright, R.W. Gent, and Didier Guffond, “DRA/NASA/ONERA Collaboration on Icing Research Pt. II—Prediction of Airfoil Ice Accretion,” NASA CR-1997-202349 (1997); William B. Wright, Mark G. Potapczuk, and Laurie H. Levinson, “Comparison of LEWICE and GlennICE in the SLD Regime,” NASA TM-2008-215174 (2008).

[51]. Banke, Shin interview.

[52]. Andrew Reehorst, David J. Brinker, and Thomas P. Ratvasky, “NASA Icing Remote Sensing System Comparisons from AIRS II,” NASA TM-2005-213592 (2005).

[53]. National Transportation Safety Board, In-Flight Icing Encounter and Loss of Control Simmons Airlines, d.b.a. American Eagle Flight 4184 Avions de Transport Regional (ATR) Model 72-212, N401AM Roselawn, Indiana October 31, 1994, v. 1: Safety Board Report, NTSB/AAR-96/01 (Washington, DC: NTSB, 1996), p. 210.

[54]. Dean R. Miller, Mark G. Potapczuk, and Thomas H. Bond, “Update on SLD Engineering Tools Development,” NASA TM-2004-213072 (2004).

[55]. Dean R. Miller, Christopher J. Lynch, and Peter A. Tate, “Overview of High Speed Close-Up Imaging in an Icing Environment,” NASA TM-2004-212925 (2004).

[56]. Dean R. Miller, Thomas Ratvasky, Ben Bernstein, Frank McDonough, and J. Walter Strapp, “NASA/FAA/NCAR Supercooled Large Droplet Icing Flight Research: Summary of Winter 1996-1997 Flight Operations,” NASA TM-1998-206620 (1998).

[57]. Laura Brown, “FAA Icing Fact Sheet: Flying in Icing Conditions,” NTSB Docket No. SA-533, Exhibit No. 2-GGG (2009).

[58]. “FAA Presentation—Icing Requirements and Guidance,” NTSB Docket No. SA-533, Exhibit No. 2-JJJ (2009).

[59]. Phone interview of Tom Ratvasky by Jim Banke, Cape Canaveral, FL, 7 April 2009.

[60]. Andy Pasztor, “Airline Regulators Grapple with Engine-Shutdown Peril,” The Wall Street Journal, Page A1, 7 April 2008.

[61]. National Transportation Safety Board, Letter to the Federal Aviation Administration, Safety Recommendation A-06-56 through -59 (Washington, DC: NTSB, 2006).

[62]. Banke, Ratvasky interview.

[63]. Manuel A. Rios, Yung I. Cho, “Analysis of Ice Crystal Ingestion as a Source of Ice Accretion,” AIAA-2008-4165 (2208).

[64]. R.C. McGuire, “Report on Grooved Runway Experience at Washington National Airport,” NASA Washington Pavement Grooving and Traction Studies (1969).

[65]. Thomas J. Yager, William A. Vogler, and Paul Baldasare, “Evaluation of Two Transport Aircraft and Several Ground Test Vehicle Friction Measurements Obtained for Various Runway Surface Types and Conditions. A Summary of Test Results From Joint FAA/NASA Runway Friction Program,” NASA TP-2917 (1990).

[66]. Mario Vargas, “Icing Branch Current Research Activities in Icing Physics,” in NASA Glenn Research Center staff, Proceedings of the Airframe Icing Workshop, NASA CP-2009-215797 (Cleveland, OH: NASA Glenn Research Center, 2009).

[67]. Colin S. Bidwell and Mark G. Potapczuk, “Users Manual for the NASA Lewis Three-Dimensional Ice Accretion Code: LEWICE 3D,” NASA TM-105974 (1993).

[68]. Marivell Baez, Mary Vickerman, and Yung Choo, “SmaggIce User Guide,” NASA TM-2000-209793 (2000).

[69]. Richard H. McFarland and Craig B. Parker, “Weather Data Dissemination to Aircraft,” NASA, Langley Research Center, Joint University Program for Air Transportation Research, 1988–1989, pp. 119–127.

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