lowed in 1314 by the Mongol yuan, similarly
one cycle parallel the adventures of heroes and
adopted this proclamatory use of the theme and
rulers in another, facilitated the inclusion of the
made the five-clawed long an exclusively imperial
Ilkhanid rulers within Iranian legendary history
symbol 73
and national epic, arguably symbolising the legit-
These multicultural symbols were presumably
imisation of their presence in the Iranian and
understood by most members of the Ilkhanid
more broadly the Western Asian world 78 The
court where, according to Allsen, a large group
cyclical nature of its “historical” destiny has,
of “Easterners” were also present such as Ong-
according to Melikian-Chirvani, made the Shāh-
guts, Qitans, Uighurs, Tibetans, Tanguts, Mon-
nāma a “mirror of destiny” and of the world 79
gols and Chinese 74 The tile revetments were
The eulogies contained in these inscriptions
without doubt impressive, expressing the wealth
are echoed by those recorded by the minister and
and taste of the Ilkhanids which in turn must
historian for the Mongols, ʿAlā al-Dīn ʿAṭa-Malik
have conveyed an awesome message of imperial
al-Juwaynī (623/1226–681/1283), in the extensive
power
dynastic history Taʾrīkh-i jahān-gushāy (“History
Some of the lustre-painted star tiles and lus-
of the World-Conqueror”), sponsored by Hülegü,
tered and molded frieze tiles of Takht-i Sulaimān
which begins with the campaigns of Genghis
include inscriptions with quotations from reli-
Khān and ends with Hülegü’s own victories in
gious texts, including Qurʾānic verses and ḥadīth,
Iran and Mesopotamia in 1256 to 1258 In one
as well as Iranian secular poems and quotations
of these accounts the future Turkic Khwārazm-
from the epic Shāh-nāma, which by the Ilkhanid
shāh Jalāl al-Dīn (617/1220–628/1231) has to flee
period was a recognised cornerstone of Iranian
to Shadayk during the struggle for succession En
literature 75 In addition to the representation of
route he engages with a Tatar army, demonstrat-
dragons and phoenixes, the subject matter of the
ing a courage that even Rustam, the son of Zāl,
visual decoration comprises depictions of princely
could not have mustered To highlight the drama
or heroic activities The verses taken from scenes
of the moment, Juwaynī quotes from the Shāh-
of the Shāh-nāma located on the borders of eight-
nāma:
pointed lustre-painted tiles and on some of the
The captain gave his dragon rein and dust
lustre-painted frieze tiles, are especially notewor-
removed
thy Melikian-Chirvani has proposed that these
Light from the world-80
inscriptions present an intentional selection of
In his battles with the Mongols, the decisive cour-
the verses in order to connect Abāqā and his suc-
age of the sulṭān is further compared to the very
cessor Aḥmad Tegüder (r 680/1282–683/1284)
deadliest creatures, the lion and the dragon:
with the ancient kings of Iran 76 The text has been
modified in at least three cases so that it addresses
a lion of the meadow or a Leviathan of the
the second person rather than the third as in the
raging sea 81
original context, hence directly addressing and
The praiseworthy qualities attributed to each beast
thereby integrating the Ilkhanid rulers into the
are here again brought together
history of Iranian kings 77 The cyclical character
However once the die was cast and the Mongol
of the Shāh-nāma, where heroes and rulers in
army had prevailed, Juwaynī was the first to par-
73 According to the Yüan-shih, the dynastic record of the
realm It is not clear whether Chinese artists were actually
yuan period, the court prohibits the use of the sun, the moon,
transferred to the Ilkhanid courts and trained local artists
dragon and tiger on the decoration of silk and satin fabrics as
or if it was mostly a matter of wide circulation of Chinese
soon as the yuan dynasty was estabished; a code for the robes
textiles, works on paper and other works of art in Western
and colours of officers issued in 1314 further specified restric-
Asia that influenced local artists Masuya, 1997, pp 31–5;
tions on “the use of designs using the long with five claws
Rossabi, 2002, p 35
and two horns as well as the feng [phoenix] on robes, vessels,
75 The verses taken from the Shāh-nāma are discussed by
and plates, tents and carts of officers ” Allsen, 1997, p 108;
Melikian-Chirvani, 1991 and 1997b; and Ghouchani, 1992
Masuya, 1997, p 570; see also eadem, 2002, p 96; Kadoi,
Cf Masuya, 1997, pp 377–405
2008, p 22, see also the discussion on p 25 As suggested by
76 Melikian-Chirvani, 1984 and idem, 1991 Cf Kadoi,
Masuya (2002, p 97), “the presence of only four claws on the
2008, p 51
dragons at Takht-i Sulayman may have expressed the Ilkhan’s
77 Melikian-Chirvani, 1997b, p 155
respect for the suzerainty of the Great Khans, who claimed
78 Cf idem, 1991, pp 33–148, and idem, 1997b, p 136
for themselves the exclusive use of the five-clawed dragon ”
79 Idem, 1997b, p 136
74 Allsen, 2001, p 6 However, very little is known about
80 Tr Boyle, 1912–37, vol 2, p 402
the presence of Chinese artists and craftsmen in the Ilkhanid
81 Idem, p 407