Treatment with EPA (3-4 gms per day) was shown to decrease the synthesis of pro-inflammatory leukotrienes and
platelet responsiveness in patients with ulcerative colitis in a small study.13
8. Raynaud’s Phenomenon
Due to its ef ects on prostaglandin metabolism, fish oil has helped some people with Raynaud’s Phenomenon in
double-blind research.14
N.B.: for eczema and asthma, see DHA (fish oil)
Dosage Ranges
For the above conditions mentioned in this section the usual dosage of fish oil is 10-15 gms of EPA plus DHA A
lesser, ideal amount for healthy people has not been determined.
Side Effects and Toxicity
Some individuals report gastrointestinal upset and fish-tasting regurgitation.6
DHA and EPA are very non-toxic, but fish oil is easily damaged by oxygen forming undesirable peroxides and other
free radicals. It should be consumed with adequate vitamin E to guard against oxidation (100-400 I.U. per day).15
Some patients experience nose bleeds due to the anti-clogging ef ect of EPA.16
Contraindications and Drug-Nutrient Interactions
Patients on anti-coagulant therapy must consult with their physicians before supplementing with fish oil. Fish oil can
further enhance the anti-clot ing behaviour of platelets and potentially increase risk of bleeding disorders.17
Fish oil supplementation may also increase blood cholesterol, thus, certain heart disease patients must exercise
caution with use of fish oil supplementation.18
High doses of fish oil can increase insulin resistance in diabetics. The maximum dosage for diabetics should not
exceed 2.5 gm fish oils or 900 mg of purified EPA supplementation. This level appears to be safe and may decrease
platelet stickiness, which may help diabetics reduce risk of cardiovascular complications.19
1. von Schacky C, Angerer P, Kothny W, Theisen K, Mudra H. The effect of dietary omega-3 fatty acids on coronary atherosclerosis. A randomized,
double-blind, placebo-controlled trial. Ann Intern Med 1999;130:554-62.
2. Mate J, Castanos R, Garcia-Samaniego J, Pajares JM. Does dietary fish oil maintain the remission of Crohn’s disease: a case study.
Gastroenterology 1991;100:A228[abstract].
3. Lee TH, Hoover RL, Williams JD. Effect of dietary enrichment with eicosapentaenoic and docosahexanoic acids on in vitro neutraphil and
monocyte leukotriene generation and neutrophil generation. New Eng J Med 1985,312:1217-24.
4. Strasser T, Fischer S, Weber P. Leukotriene B5 is formed in human neutrophils after dietary supplementation with EPA. Proc Nat Acad
Sci 1985;82:1540-3.
5. Kinsella JE, Lokesh B, Stone RA. Dietary n-3 polyunsaturated fatty acids and amelioration of cardiovascular disease: possible
mechanisms. Am J Clin Nutr 1990;52:1-28.
6. Murray M. Encyclopedia of Nutritional Supplements. Rocklin, CA: Prima Publishing; 1996. p. 249-78.
7. Cobiac L, Clifton PM, Abbey M, et al. Lipid, lipoprotein, and hemostatic effects of fish vs fish oil w-3 fatty acids in mildly hyperlipidemic
males. Am J Clin Nutr 1991;53:1210-6.
8. Schmidt EB, Dyerberg J. Omega-3 fatty acids: Current status in cardiovascular medicine. Drugs 1994;47:405-24.
www.meschinohealth.com
33
Meschino Health Comprehensive Guide to Accessory Nutrients and Essential Oils
Accessory Nutrients and Essential Oils
9. Appel LJ, Miller ER, Seidler AJ, Whelton PK. Dose supplementation of diet with “fish oil” reduce blood pressure? A meta-analysis of
controlled clinical trials. Arch Intern Med 1993;153:1429-38.
10. Singer P. Alpha-linolenic acid vs long-chain fatty acids in hypertension and hyperlipidemia. Nutrition 1992;8:133-5.
11. Swank RL. Multiple sclerosis: fat-oil relationship. Nutrition 1991;7:368–76.
12. Swank RL, et al. The Multiple Sclerosis Diet Book. Garden City, NY: Doubleday; 1977.
13. Belluzzi, A, Boschi, S, Brignola, C, Munarini, A, Cariani, G, Miglio F. Polyunsaturated fatty acids and inflammatory bowel disease. Am J
Clin Nutr 2000;71(Suppl):339S-42S.
14. DiGiacoma RA, Kremer JM, Shah DM. Fish-oil dietary supplementation in patients with Raynaud’s phenomenon: A double-blind,
controlled prospective study. Am J Med 1989;86:158-64.
15. Piche LA, Draper HH, Cole PD. Malondialdehyde excretion by subjects consuming cod liver oil vs a concentrate of n-3 fatty acids. Lipids
1988;23:370-1.
16. Clarke JTR, Cullen-Dean G, Reglink E, et al. Increased incidence of epistaxis in adolescents with familial hypercholesterolemia treated
with fish oil. J Pediats 1990;116:139-41.
17. Pederson HS, et al. n-3 fatty acids as a risk factor for hemorrhagic stroke. Lancet 1999;353:812-3.
18. Schectman G, Kaul S, Kassebah AH. Effect of fish oil concentrate on lipoprotein composition in NIDDM. Diabetes 1988;37:1567-73.
19. Axelrod L, Camuso J, Williams E, Kleinman K, Briones E, Schoenfeld D. Effects of a small quantity of omega-3 fatty acids on
cardiovascular risk factors in NIDDM: a randomized, prospective, double-blind, controlled study. Diabetes Care 1994;17:37-44.
www.meschinohealth.com
34
Meschino Health Comprehensive Guide to Accessory Nutrients and Essential Oils
Accessory Nutrients and Essential Oils
Flaxseed Oil and Alpha-Linolenic Acid
General Features
Flaxseed Oil is a very rich source of alpha-linolenic acid, an omega-3 fat that the body can slowly convert to
eicosapentaenoic acid (EPA). EPA is the prominent omega-3 fat found within fish and fish oil that is linked to the
prevention of heart disease, cancer and demonstrates anti-inflammatory properties.1-4
Flaxseed Oil supplementation can help the body achieve a more optimal ratio of omega-6 fat y acids to omega-3 fat y
acids, which is considered to be 4:1.5 The North American diet provides a 20:1 ratio of omega-6 fat y acids to omega-
3 fat y acids, which is thought to contribute to the development of many chronic degenerative diseases.6
Various polyunsaturated fats of the omega-6 and omega-3 series give rise to the formation of eicosanoids, including
prostaglandins (hormone-like substances that regulate local tissue inflammation, proliferation and other factors).
Studies reveal that supplementing with omega-3 fat y acids and lowering the omega-6 to omega-3 ratio results in
increase of synthesis of anti-inflammatory and more health-promoting prostaglandins.7,8
Studies reveal that Flaxseed Oil has a favourable ef ect on the immune system and that its alpha-linolenic acid is
converted to eicosapentaenoic acid (EPA), the immediate precursor of prostaglandin series-3 derivatives.9,10
Supplementation Studies and Clinical Applications