Any cultural phenomenon study, especial y that religion-related, is conventionally started from its primeval forms. Th is tradition is rather logic since notwithstanding the investigation methodology (be it an evolutionary [281] or a structural [137] approaches) the study of corresponding cultural phenomena in primeval society enables a more distinctive single-out of subject-matter of the considered notion.
A signifi cant feature proper to primeval culture and religion is that a researcher of today has two sources of information available for their study: archeological fi nds and culture of modern tribes that currently remain at their early development stage. Of course one should consider the fact that the issue of whether correlation between these two types of culture is reasonably possible is so far open. In this respect there exist two totally opposite points of view: the followers of evolutionary theory give a positive reply to this question while the concept supported by structuralism-theory adherents is a totally counter one. Still within the scope of psychological analysis of primeval religiosity phenomenon it should be more logic to imply diff erent forms of archaic religiosity to be of common nature. Moreover, it is not only primeval society that archaic forms of behaviour are peculiar to. Numerous researchers in diff erent ways pointed out that in case of getting under some particular conditions an individual of today may act in the manner of the primeval one. Being formulated for the fi rst time by G. Le Bon, this theory in due time found its adherents and 100 Andrey G. Safronov. PSYCHOLOGICAL PRACTICES IN MYSTIC TRADITIONS: FROM ARCHAIC TO OUR DAYS
obtained corresponding verifi cations in scope of psychology, anthropology and sociology [134].
In the XX-th century there were various attempts performed aimed at research study of human mind archaic layers. First of all, there comes systematization and generalization of ancient Mythologic texts (J. Fraser, M. Eliade, M. Malherbe, C. Levi-Strauss, J. Campbel , K. Huebner etc.). In terms of analytical psychology C. Jung and his fol owers de-duced the principle of human behaviour dependence upon mythological images of unconscious mind. Th e research studies of political processes related to secularization and col ectivization of social phenomena that are linked to archaic forms (G. Le Bon, J. Ortega y Gasset and others), to mass media infl uence upon conscious mind (G. Tarde), to fi guring out basic structures of thinking (K. Mannheim), to clearing out the role of nomination, lifestyles and symbolic capital in formation of political groups (P. Bourdieu), to realization of media-communicative function of ruling authorities (N. Luhmann), to new display of irrational motives in col ective behaviour (S. Moscovici) were performed. Making a brief summary of results drawn from investigations of above-mentioned authors we can observe that archaic elements may manifest themselves in a number of phenomena, the most signifi cant of them being the following ones:
1. Formation of regressive subcultures, i.e. subcultures that live in forms of social relationships that were proper to mankind on its development stages prior to the contemporary one. As an example we can draw the criminal subculture that correlates to the primeval-magic level [54; 204; 221]. Here is what L. Samoylov writes in his article “A Journey to the Upturned World”: “In penal colony a number of exotic phenomena characterize the primeval society. Th e rites of initiation: criminals obtain their “registration”, the taboos are turned into colony’s
“blunders”, tattoos function as symbols of one’s being member of a particular “tribe”… Several swear-words stand for hundreds of notions and needs… Extreme superstitiousness comes as an element of primeval religion”[221]. One can relate many gangs, including those of youth, to subcultures of this kind [352; 353].
2. Th e ability of a separate individual to react upon specifi c symbols in compliance with archaic behavioral scenarios. Investigations PSYCHOLOGICAL PRACTICES IN MYSTIC TRADITIONS: FROM ARCHAIC TO OUR DAYS. Andrey G. Safronov 101
performed by us in this direction by using methods of psycho-semantics [319] showed the majority of tested to have displayed remnants of archaic consciousness strata, like the unconscious self-identifi cation or identifi cation of emotionally signifi cant people with a totem-animal, involvement into standard mythological patterns, usage of archaic images in one’s description of the world. Th e prerequisites needed for emergence of the mentioned eff ect of collective regression may come as both individual’s personal traits and involvement of new members into already formed regressive subculture, as wel as direct re-stimulation of archaic psyche layers by images and symbols that are linked to these cultural levels [230].
3. Th e states of collective psychosis that result in disorders, wars, revolutions (this phenomenon was initial y observed and studied by V.
Bekhterev [23]).
4. Th erapeutic regression — a specifi c state that the patient is put into during psychotherapy sessions that is characterized by a more simple, less “civilized” mode of reality perception [298, pg. 53].
5. Children’s subculture. Detailed research studies of this phenomenon were carried out, for instance, by T. B. Shchepanska [352].
Explanation of these phenomena origin lies in acknowledgement of similitude principle between the phylogeny and the ontogeny, between individual and col ective unconscious mind [396]. Within the process of its evolution the mankind is acknowledged to survive several stages of mass consciousness development, each of them being characterized by specifi c individual’s attitude to the world and social environment, by forms of behaviour, Mythologic system etc. Th e survived stages don’t go traceless yet remain in col ective unconscious mind [61-63].
Information about these stages is passed over to every child during upbringing process by means of fairy-tales, myths, as well as works that are based upon classic mythologems which roots go to the deepest cultural strata [195; 214; 217]. Th is facilitates the development of child consciousness up to the level perceived by the mankind. Th us myths make up basic material that col ective consciousness is made of. In this term the above-mentioned notions of regressive cultures, as wel as children’s subculture, come as phenomena of the same range.
Th e myths’ hierarchy is similar in both col ective consciousness and 102 Andrey G. Safronov. PSYCHOLOGICAL PRACTICES IN MYSTIC TRADITIONS: FROM ARCHAIC TO OUR DAYS
individual’s unconscious mind. And it is preservation of this information about experienced stages (strata) that causes the ability of an individual, a minor group or a collective mass to — if subjected to some particular circumstances -regress to the level of one of these stages, with peculiar modifi cation of mind-set, behaviour and worldview.
Let us single out the fol owing strata of col ective unconscious mind that can be observed both in children’s culture and in other spheres of modern society: the totemic, the fetishistic, the animistic, the primeval-magic and the mythological one.
Following P.Feyerabend [316] it should be logical to assume that there also exists a specifi c layer of col ective unconscious mind that is correlated with major ways of environment cognition by mankind (fi rst of all, by science) at the current development stage. In all times the forms of behaviour and perception specifi ed by this layer have been conventionally referred to as the “rational” while those specifi ed by deeper ones — as the “irrational”, their irrationality being the more signifi cant the more archaic were the thus actualized layers of unconscious mind.
In this way, a most essential feature of collective consciousness lies in its simultaneous containing all possible cultural stages — part of them being realized, while part remaining unconscious, thus naturally bringing the necessity of ritual “servicing” performed for every layer.
4.2. THE PHENOMENON
OF UNCONSCIOUS RELIGIOSITY
AND SECULAR RITUALS
Re-stimulation of underlying strata can show itself in form of unconscious religiosity –we shal usethis term to imply individual’s performing some archaic religious rituals uncomprehending the religious nature and essence of the performed acts, and establishment of one’s worldview on the basis of religious mythology being unaware of mythological nature that these ideas bear. In modern culture one can meet numerous non-conscious religious forms of behaviour; some of them shall be considered further on in this work.
PSYCHOLOGICAL PRACTICES IN MYSTIC TRADITIONS: FROM ARCHAIC TO OUR DAYS. Andrey G. Safronov 103
Here we should make a note that in terms of rituals’ eff ect upon individual’s psychological state it makes absolutely no diff erence whether the individual performing such ritual considers it to be religious or not. In any case corresponding ritual provides a structuring impact upon individual’s unconscious sphere. We shal be cal ing rituals that are similar to religious but are performed beyond religious context the “secular” ones. Secular rituals may be institutionalized by social environment, like, for instance, taking an oath or inauguration of a president, or they may be proper to some specifi c subculture only, like, for example, the uniting ritual done by players of one sport team prior to a game, or it may relate to marginal sphere of society like the prison “registration” does. Moreover, there exist some corresponding rituals that the society — despite al ritual features that they have —
does not treat for rituals at al , for instance, a corporative party or drinking “to one’s acquaintanceship”.
The significant layer of unconscious religious elements, first of all those of archaic nature that are available in culture, playa very important cultural role since rituals that correspond to every layer of collective and individual unconscious mind facilitate structuring of this very layer, it being impossible by means of any other rituals. That is why the study of such forms of religiosity and their psychological essence is very actual. The consideration of this phenomenon is possible by means of juxtaposing several elements of modern culture with their corresponding archaic elements, first of all, archaic religious rituals. This shall be done in the following paragraphs.
4.3. PSYCHOPRACTICES
USED IN TOTEMISM
Th ey consider totemism to be the most archaic of all known religious systems [138; 268; 281]. In its pure form it can be observed by backward tribes of Australia. Th e traces of totemism in this or that form can be found in al available religious and quasi-religious systems.
Totemism is defi ned as identifi cation of self or a group of people with some animal, or — less frequently — with some plant or an item 104 Andrey G. Safronov. PSYCHOLOGICAL PRACTICES IN MYSTIC TRADITIONS: FROM ARCHAIC TO OUR DAYS
that is referred to as the totem. Totemic cults are characterized by the fol owing features available:
1) a ban (taboo) on killing and eating the totem animal but for specifi c ritual cases, i.e. the feasts of communal totem eating; 2) ritual imitation of totem;
3) usage of body partsof totemic animal that was killed during a ritual performed for the purpose of the cult (its claws, teeth, skins), emergence of totemic fetishes;
4) there is a totemic myth of creation that describes the emergence of this very totemic community;
5) exogamy of the totemic group, i.e. a ban on sexual relationships between the group members;
6) there is a totemic ritual of initiation accompanied by corresponding myth.
One can easily notice that all described actions, being specifi c features of totemism, bear the character of simplest psychopractices that in their complex set facilitate the establishment of some psychic structures. It is true that any ban causes accumulation of intrapsychical tension, cumulation of psychic energy that can be used for further formation of religious images (the details of restricting practices’ usage shall be set in Section V). One’s imitation of totemic animal bearing evokes a more solid self-identifi cation with this animal and one’s totemic community that is required to be performed regularly in order to prevent the “identity crises” that may occur either due to long-term absence of contacts with representatives of one’s community (for instance, while being on hunt) or in case of emotional contacts’ establishment with members of other communities. Here we should note that it is this very desire to preserve one’s identity that caused the requirement of performing rituals of purgation, or even those of re-birth, after durable contact with representatives of other cultures [81; 87].
From psychological point of view totemism is the fi rst step on the way to man’s self-comprehension, understanding of his species, his nature and his role in the environment. In fact, totem came as a fi rst self-nomination of the human species. Another notable issue here is the fact that the development of totemism was proceeding from the group, when a totem was a common notion for a more or less numerous PSYCHOLOGICAL PRACTICES IN MYSTIC TRADITIONS: FROM ARCHAIC TO OUR DAYS. Andrey G. Safronov 105
community, to the individual, thus coming as a compelling manifestation of consciousness individuation that was then occurring. Individual totemism referred to as the nagualism is proper of societies with fairly developed culture.
Totemism can be also treated for the initial step in structuration of human society since it was actual y ensured by those existing totemic clans that were united into totemic units of a bigger scale — phratries.
Moreover, in accordance with totemic structuralism theory developed by C. Levi-Strauss, an outstanding scientist of the XX-th cent., it is this very social structuring that can be considered as one of the most essential aspects of totemism existence [138].
4.3.1. Totemic Initiation as a Kind of Psychopractice Totemic initiation comes as one of the most signifi cant totemic rituals and it obviously performs function of a psychopractice [138; 281].
Th is ritual is the most ancient and archaic of al known rituals of this kind. One can positively claim totemic initiation to be the foretype of al initiating rituals that today exist both in religious and secular spheres.
Th e procedure of totemic initiation usual y consists of several stages.
Th e 1st stage — setting of excessive intrapsychical tension and
“withdrawal” of initiated individual from his common context. Th e mentioned targets were achieved by means of imposing numerous ritual restrictions — nutritive, sexual etc. Th ose initiated were prevented from free contacting and could communicate only with help of conventional signs etc. In some traditions such people were subjected to severe isolation. Sometimes the restraints imposed were of obviously irrational character, or even absurd, like for instance the requirement of eating without usage of one’s arms, or hiding oneself away from female eyes, and many others. However, the main essence of these actions is ensured by the absurdity of restraints, their irrationality and the tension that is thus created. Th e goal of these psychopractices — them being psychopractices since corresponding actions are performed voluntarily (those subjected preserve self-control over their actions) is to destroy habitual role stereotypes in consciousness of the initiated individual and thus release his inner energy that is necessary for psychical 106 Andrey G. Safronov. PSYCHOLOGICAL PRACTICES IN MYSTIC TRADITIONS: FROM ARCHAIC TO OUR DAYS
transformation. Elimination of customary roles also performs auxiliary function of individual’s “existentiation”, clear identifi cation of his inner
“self” that is diff erent from accustomed roles. M. Heidegger [300] observed that it is this role confl ict that comes as a basis for comprehending one’s nature and being.
Almost al known religious systems took advantage of this depriva-tions practice, i.e. the practice of unconditional restraints, absurd actions as wel as deliberate “withdrawal” of an individual from the set of social roles that he traditional y employs. Let us remember Christian rituals of obedience or absurdity techniques used by Don Juan in C.
Castaneda’s books [108]. Such techniques are also exploited by non-religious systems that require partial control of consciousness, for instance, the “newbies academy course” that is taken by a young man who enters the army.
Creation of Mythologic reality comes as the 2nd stage. Initiated individuals were shared with tribe myths and legends where an important role was played by a myth about a monster that kil s boys during initiation procedure and then enlivens them into adult tribe members.
In this way there was a new Mythologic reality formed in initiated person’s consciousness that was deemed to exist only up to termination of the initiation procedure. One’s surviving through corresponding events that were linked to initiation made sense only in case of their “correct” interpretation. Th is was an essential provision that ensured gaining of required pathos by actions that otherwise appear as rather harmless, and only in this case the established psychic structures were transformed into religious images, i.e. were fi lled in with required “amount” of sacred notion. Mircea Eliade marked that it is not the common environment that the ritual performing individual lives in, but the specifi c, the ritual one [356; 359]. One’s being in this ritual environment is characterized by comparative mildness of psychic structures, expressed emotional intensity and individual’s existentiality. Th e last condition is the one required for making a choice that comes as an essential element of every initiation.
Th e 3rd stage is the choice. After preliminary preparation was over, the candidates were suggested that they should make a deliberate choice and proceed to initiation, i.e. the process of monster’s eating PSYCHOLOGICAL PRACTICES IN MYSTIC TRADITIONS: FROM ARCHAIC TO OUR DAYS. Andrey G. Safronov 107
them. Th is was a crucial moment. Should the young man refuse to, he could continue living with the tribe but was deprived of the rights that adult tribe members boasted with. Deliberate selection of death (even though symbolic — it is stil very real in the ritual environment) is the choice that diff ers a man from a beast. A beast (some species) may sacrifi ce itself if subjected to the instinct of species preservation, but only a human being is able to do this without any biological necessity.
By making such choice the tested individual confi rms his being a human. One can observe here another psychological function as well. Th e ability of refusing from one’s traditional role, one’s “dying every next day” comes as a basis of hiscapability for development. Extremely strict role structures prevent a man from his evolution thus reducing his own individual adaptiveness, and consequently that of the species as wel .
Stage 4 is the initiating procedure itself, as it is described in thousands of sources. Th e adolescents choosing initiation procedure were taken by tribe adult members, usual y wearing ritual costumes, to the place of monster’s habitation where they were subjected to diff erent trials for pain endurance and stamina. Each ritual was culminated by symbolic eating of the initiated person by a monster that was symbolized either by a cave, a wooden mock-up or a hoop with infi xed
“teeth” that he had to go through. Th ere existed other fi gures of symbolic death that were used less frequently, for instance, height jump.
Th e initiated person was subjected to injuries as tokens of death and resurrection. Th e procedure of circumcision was widely spread, while in some tribes they used to knock out tooth of the trialed person, pul out his hair and so on.
Finally, at stage 5 there comes the establishment of the adult person’s stable mythological environment. A young man who had just survived the initiation was being told an esoteric myth of initiation about a genius who acts as theprocedure patron. He was explained that the youngster-eating monster didn’t exist while al those formi-dable sounds were merely rattling of special clappers, yet he was not allowed to pass this information to non-initiated tribe members. In this way the individual who has survived the initiation myth proceeds to some meta-myth that makes basis of this community life depiction. A minor-range myth comes as an element contained within the meta-myth. For instance, the genius — the patron of initiation told that it 108 Andrey G. Safronov. PSYCHOLOGICAL PRACTICES IN MYSTIC TRADITIONS: FROM ARCHAIC TO OUR DAYS
should be shared with every newly-initiated member, although it does not correspond to reality. Th e necessity of meta-myth acknowledgement is obvious. Th e neophyte’s psyche, being in the state of emotional agitation and euphoria, can crumble down should the energy surplus remain unstructured in accordance with new religious images. Having passed through such initiation a youngster becomes an equal member of the community.
We have described the essence of totemic initiation as a psychopractice aimed at consciousness overcoming of one’s fear and in this way changing inner self-appraisal and self-identity of the ritual participant. However totemic initiation facilitates achievement of some more signifi cant psychological goals which essence can be comprehended in case one analyses contemporary psycho-techniques that are similar to totemic initiation, as wel as applies methodology that has come as best practice in scope of already mentioned transpersonal psychology. First of al , totemic initiation includes procedures of the child-birth process symbolic reproduction. Re-stimulation of psyche layers with there contained natal experience may come useful in actualization of corresponding psychotraumas that infl uence upon further character formation as wel as substitute this experience with a more favourable one [61-63].
4.3.2. Modern Analogues
of Totemic Psychopractices
Despite the fact that totemism in its pure form is now available only from most undeveloped tribes, one may come across some features of this religious form in modern culture as wel : in religious systems, state symbolic, children’s subculture and some other specifi c subcultures.
In religious systems totemism exists in form of substitution of more developed religious images by images of animals. Th e traces of totemism can be easily found in animal icons on state symbols, cities’ emblems etc., once again bringing us back to the idea of totemism as a primary form of social organization. One may observe the majority of state emblems to contain explicit or symbolic fi gures of animals.
Animal symbolic is also wel -spread in sport sub-culture. It is interesting that but for the teams’ names the elements of totemism have PSYCHOLOGICAL PRACTICES IN MYSTIC TRADITIONS: FROM ARCHAIC TO OUR DAYS. Andrey G. Safronov 109
recently occurred in sport rituals as wel ; in particular the totemic-type rituals are used for the purpose of team psychological arrangement, fi rst of al stimulation of aggressiveness and the feeling of team unity.
For instance, let us take the “conga-line” that is used in some combat-ive sports: the whole team makes up a line and pushes out its combat sportsman onto the arena. In some sports — for example, in American footbal , they even use the elements of “war paint” that symbolizes the animal that the team has been named after, imitation of sounds produced by this animal etc.
Th e totemism in children’s subculture is mostly obvious as wel .
Playing “the animals” is one of the most favourite amusements of little children. Tales about animals, many of them being of explicitly totemic origin, come as those psychological y actual at this stage. For instance the essence of the Little Red Riding Hood tale is nothing but interpretation of the totemic initiation myth.
Th e usage of animals’ denominations for fl attering and vituperative terms, the caricatures representing man in zoomorphic form, political symbolics and advertisements based upon zoological symbols can be also referred to as manifestation of totemic worldview in modern culture.
Some techniques that correlate with totemic psychopractices are employed by many psychotherapeutic schools, for instance the “Sexuality training” of Syntone includes the technique of one’s self-identifying with some animal.
Th e ritual of joint eating the totem-animal comes as a basis of numerous unconscious psychopractices of both religious and secular character that are aimed at group unity activation. Th ese are fi rst of al various drink receptions and corporate parties, joint bread break-ings and bachelor parties etc. And since these practices in fact comply with corresponding totemic ritual, they result in actual facilitation of collective unity at the level of the unconscious mind element that correlates with this layer. Moreover, the more taboos are applied to the jointly performed actions in real life (for instance, the food may be too expensive or the actions may be of emphasized marginal character), the more eff ect such ritual brings.
110 Andrey G. Safronov. PSYCHOLOGICAL PRACTICES IN MYSTIC TRADITIONS: FROM ARCHAIC TO OUR DAYS
4.3.3. Nagualism
Th e so cal ed individual totemism or nagualism comes as one of the totemism developed forms that is connected with the process of consciousness individuation [281]. As a rule it is characteristic of more sophisticated religious systems, for instance the shamanism. Nagualism is based upon the idea of interrelation between an individual and some particular animal that acts as his personal totem-patron. Th e people of Maya civilization used to cal this animal “the nagual” and this is where the corresponding term originates from. In its structure nagualism is close to animism since there were only few tribes who really identifi ed themselves with nagual. In major cases nagual is rather treated for an individual genius that can help or give an advice in case of trouble.
It is interesting that just like in totemism one’s gaining such genius was also linked to passing through a particular process of initiation.
Th ose who were wil ing to undergo such initiation (usual y young men and girls in their pubescence) isolated themselves and by means of fasting, special exercises and taking of psychoactive herbs got themselves into the state of trance. While being in such state they were visited by a fi gure of an animal that used to turn into their nagual in future. One can easily observe that such initiation diff ers substantial y from that of the totemism and bears an individual character, not the social one. Psychological meaning of such rituals shal be considered in the fol owing sections.
Being a form of religiosity, nagualism is very interesting from the point of investigating the case of unconscious religiosity. And indeed, the psychologists did observe the phenomenon of individual’s self-identifi cation with some animal or his intense emotional attitude to this animal [21]. Research studies performed by the author [230] also verify the existence of such unconscious identifi cation phenomenon.
4.4. PSYCHOPRACTICES USED IN ANIMISM
4.4.1. Animism Basic Concepts and